2017/2018 BUK ADMISSION LIST

Bayero University, Kano (BUK) 2017/2018 UTME and DE Admission List

The general public is hereby informed that the 2017/2018 admission list for UTME and Direct Entry applicants, is now available.
To view the list,

Check your UTME Admission Status by clicking on the link below:

http://www.buk.edu.ng/sites/default/files/admission/utme_admissions_2017_2018.pdf

Check your DE Admission Status by clicking on the link below:
http://www.buk.edu.ng/sites/default/files/admission/de_admissions_2017_2018.pdf

REAGENTS AND PREPARATION OF STOCK SOLUTIONS

 REAGENTS USED IN THE LABORATORY UNITS
The following reagents are commonly used in the laboratory:
Acids : These include hydrochloric acid (HCl), perchlorics acid (HClO4), glacial acetic acid (CH3CO2H), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4), lead nitrate [Pb(NO3)2], orthophosphoric acid, silver nitrate (AgNO3), boric acid (H3BO3), cupric acid, acetic acid (CH3CO2H), and ascorbic acid(C6H8O6).
Bases and Salts: These includes sodium hydroxide (NaOH), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium hydogen orthophosphate, potassium hydroxide (KOH), Meyers reagent, Fehling I and Fehling II, saturated sodium chloride, potassium iodide (KI), alcoholic potassium hydroxide (alc. KOH), and  ammonia (NH3).
Organic solvents: These include diethylether (C2H5OC2H5), ethanol(C2H5OH), chloroform(CHCl3), petroleum ether (mixture of pentane and hexane), Hexane (C6H14), acetone(CH3COCH3), formaldehyde(CH2O), acetonitrile (CH3CN), methanol (CH3OH), tetrahydrofuran, isopropanol (CH3CHOHCH3), dimethyl formamide, phenol, and alcohol.
Indicators: These include phenolphthalein, screened methyl red, methylene blue, methyl red, methyl orange, phenanthroline, cresol purple, ortho-ludine, crystal violet, xylenol orange, mordant black II, solochrome black T (Eriochrome black T), starch indicator, bromocresol green, bromomethylene blue, and resorcinol.
Buffers: These include sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate (NaH2PO4.2H2O), phosphate buffer, ammonium chloride buffer, sodium hexane sulphonic acid buffer.
Cleansing agents: Example is activated charcoal.

PREPARATION OF STOCK SOLUTIONS
Stock solutions are usually prepared for use in pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmaceutical control laboratories as follows:
Preparation of Buffer Solutions
Standard Buffer Solutions of pH 4, 7 and 10
Aim: To prepare standard Buffers of pH 4, 7 and 10.
Materials: 100-ml volumetric flask, disodium hydrogen orthophosphate buffer of pH 6.9 (equivalent to buffer pH 7.0) and distilled water.
Procedure:  Buffer tablet of pH 4 was dissolved in a 100-ml volumetric flask with distilled water. It was shaken properly to dissolve, and was then made up to volume with more distilled water.
The same procedure was followed to prepare buffers 7 and 10.
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Buffer Solution of pH 10.8
Aim: To prepare ammonium chloride buffer solution of pH 10.8
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, Ammonium chloride salt, 10M ammonia solution, 100-ml volumetric flask, and distilled water.
Procedure: 5.4g of ammonium chloride salt was weighed and dissolved in 20ml of distilled water. 35ml of 10M ammonia solution was added and diluted to the mark in a 100ml volumetric flask with distilled water.


Sodium Hexane Sulphonic Acid Buffer
Aim: To prepare sodium hexane sulphonic acid buffer.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, measuring cylinder, 2000-ml volumetric flask, sonicator, sodium hexane sulphonic acid salt, glacial acetic acid, and distilled water.
Procedure: 1.8822g of Sodium Hexane sulphonic acid salt was weighed into a 2litre volumetric flask. 1500ml of distilled water was added and shaken to dissolve. 20ml of glacial acetic acid was added and made up to the mark with distilled water. The solution was sonicated in a sonicator to remove air bubbles.
Preparation of Salt Solutions
24.818% Sodium ThiosulphatePentahydrate (Na2S2O3.5H2O) Solution
Aim: To prepare 24.818% sodium thiosulphatepentahydrate solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, Sodium Thiosulphate salt, 1000ml volumetric flask and Distilled water.
Procedure:  248.18g of the sodium thiosulphatepentahydrate salt was weighed and was transferred into a 1000ml volumetric flask, to which sufficient water was added. The flask was shaken properly to dissolve, and was made up to volume with more distilled water.
0.05M Iodine solution
Aim: To prepare 0.05M iodine solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, iodine salt, and distilled water.
Procedure: 3.1725g of iodine was weighed into a 500ml volumetric flask and dissolved with adequate amount of distilled water. The solution was made up to the mark with distilled water
0.1M Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) Solution
Aim: To prepare 0.1M silver nitrate solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, silver nitrate salt, and distilled water
17.0g of AgNO3 salt was weighed into a 1-litre volumetric flask and dissolved with adequate quantity of distilled water. The solution was made up to the 1-litre mark with distilled water.
Preparation of Acidic Solutions
25% Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Solution
Aim: To prepare 25% hydrochloric acid solution.
Materials: Measuring cylinder, 100-ml volumetric flask, concentrated hydrochloric acid, and distilled water.
Procedure: 25ml of concentrated Hydrochloric acid was measured under the fume hood into a 100-ml volumetric flask containing a considerable amount of distilled water, more distilled water was added to make up to the mark.
1.0M Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid (H2SO4) Solution
Aim: To prepare 1.0M sulphuric acid solution.
Materials: Measuring cylinder, 500-ml volumetric flask, concentrated sulphuric acid (36.0%), and distilled water.
Procedure: 74ml of conc. H2SO4 was measured under the fume hood and was transferred into a 500ml volumetric flask containing some quantity of distilled water. The solution was then made up to 500ml with more distilled water.
Note: Acid was added to water and not water to acid.
The relation below was used to calculate the volume of concentrated H2SO4 to be measured in order to prepare 1.0M H2SO4 solution in a required amount:
V1=MCV10PD
Where:
M= Molar Mass of H2SO4 = 98g/mol
C= Concentration of H2SO4 to be prepared (Known) =1.0M
V= Volume of H2SO4 to be prepared (Known) =500ml
P= Percentage Purity or Assay (Usually found on the container’s label) =36.0%
D= Density of H2SO4 (Usually found on the container’s label) = 1.84g/cm3
V1=98×1.0×50010×36.0×1.84
V1=49000662.4
V1= 74ml
This is the method used to determine the volume of a stock solution required to prepare a given volume of known concentration of the solution.
Ascorbic acid solution
Aim: To prepare ascorbic acid solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, measuring cylinder, 500-ml volumetric flask, ascorbic acid powder, and dimethyl formamide.
Procedure: 0.5g of Ascorbic Acid powder was weighed and dissolved in 5ml of water. It was diluted to 500ml with dimethylformamide and wrapped with foil paper.
Note: preparation should be done in the dark.
Preparation of Alkaline Solutions
10M Ammonia solution
Given that the percentage purity and density of the stock ammonia solution are 25% and 0.903g/cm3, the required concentration was prepared using the dilution formula.
Aim: To prepare 10M ammonia solution.
Materials: Measuring cylinder, 100-ml volumetric flask, stock ammonia solution, and distilled water.
Procedure: 75ml of concentrated ammonia was measured under the fume cupboard using a measuring cylinder and was transferred into a 100ml volumetric flask. It was then diluted with distilled water to the 100ml mark.
50% Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Aim: To prepare 50% sodium hydroxide solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, 500-ml volumetric flask, beakers, sodium hydroxide salt, and distilled water.
Procedure: 250g of NaOH crystals were weighed and dissolved in a beaker with adequate amount of distilled water which was placed under the influence of running water. The dissolved NaOH was transferred into a 500ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with distilled water.
Preparation of 15% Tween-Water Stock Solution
Aim: To prepare 15% tween-water solution
Materials: Measuring cylinder, 1000-ml volumetric flask, tween solution, and distilled water.
Procedure: 150ml of tween solution was measured and added to 850ml of deionized or distilled water in a 1-litre volumetric flask. The resulting solution was swirled to mix.
Preparation of 70% Methanol-Tween Solution
Aim: To prepare 70% methanol-tween solution
Materials: Measuring cylinder, 1000-ml volumetric flask, 15% tween-water stock solution, and 100% methanol.
Procedure: 300ml of 15% tween-water stock solution was measured and added to 700ml of 100% methanol in a 1000-ml volumetric flask. The solution was swirled to mix.
Preparation of 1% starch indicator.
Aim: To prepare 1% starch indicator
Materials: Analytical balance, 1000-ml volumetric flask, spatula, starch, and hot water.
Procedure: 10g of starch was weighed and dissolved in hot water and made up to volume with hot water in 1000ml volumetric flask.
Preparation of Fehling I Solution
Aim: To prepare Fehling I solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, copper (II) sulphate salt, 1000-ml volumetric flask, glass rod, and distilled water.
Procedure: 69.278g of copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) was weighed and was transferred into 1000-ml volumetric flask. Sufficient water was added, stirred and shaken properly to dissolve, after which it was made up to volume with more distilled water.
Preparation of Fehling II Solution
Aim: To prepare Fehling II solution.
Materials: Analytical balance, spatula, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) salt, sodium potassium tartarate salt, 1000-ml volumetric flask, glass rod, and distilled water.
Procedure: 100g of NaOH and 346g of sodium potassium tartarate salts were weighed and transferred into 1000-ml volumetric flask. Sufficient water was added, after which the mixture was stirred and shaken properly to dissolve. It was then made up to volume with more distilled water.
 

GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY

1.3 GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY
1.3.1 Background
It should be noted that the safety rules contained herein   are guidelines only. Any individual engaged in laboratory work or activities must recognize that there are biological hazards, chemical hazards or radiation hazards, all of which are categories of risk the laboratory worker may be susceptible to. In addition, it is necessary to ensure that any statutory safety regulations or codes of practice are observed and that adequate information relating to the hazards is available.
1.3.2 Responsibility
The basic accountability lies with the Head of Laboratory Unit. He may in turn delegate responsibilities. However, it must be unequivocally clear that safety is everybody’s responsibility. The Unit Heads must alert co-workers on the possible hazards, their prevention, suitable waste disposal methods, the consequences of an accident, and the actions to take in case of an accident.
All employees and students are required to learn and understand the properties of the chemicals they work with as well as the operational features of laboratory equipment and to follow all precautions applicable to each task. In case of any sudden damage or injury, the employee and student should act to protect themselves and others in the area. He or she should also report to the supervisor immediately on any unsafe or hazardous conditions in their work area.
1.3.3. General Laboratory Safety
1.3.3.1 Emergency Planning
There is the need to be acquainted with the layout of the building and the location of emergency exits, emergency exit routes applicable to a particular laboratory, emergency telephones, fire–fighting equipment and how it works, emergency shower, and first aid equipment.

1.3.3.2 Corridors and Entrance
All corridors, doorways, especially emergency exits, stairs are always kept free from obstruction. These include trolleys and portable equipment, delivered stores etc. Likewise, fire blankets, showers and extinguishers must be kept clear of other equipment.
Care was exercised when opening and closing doors when entering or leaving the laboratoryand one should never run in thelaboratory or long corridors.
It is also important for you to know the position of the main laboratory controls for electricity, gas and water and see that they are free from obstructions.
1.4 LABORATORY HYGIENE
• Appropriate personal protections were used and hands regularly washed when working with chemical regents, especially before any meals.
• Food and drink should were not stored or prepared in laboratories, or chemical storerooms.
• Smoking in laboratories was strictly prohibited.
• Always use pipette fillers or measuring cylinder, never use mouth to pipette reagents
• Wearing of contact lenses in the laboratory was strongly discouraged.

1.5 BASIC LABORATORY PRECAUTIONS AND GENERAL HOUSEKEEPING FOR RESEARCH ROOMS
• Appropriate personal protective equipment was worn when you are working in the laboratory and remove them before leaving the laboratory.
• All work benches must be kept clean at all time and particularly free from chemicals and unnecessary apparatus.
• It is recommended to clean up work area after each experiment. Any apparatus which may have been contaminated with harmful chemicals should be rinsed before being left for final cleaning. Rinse should be containerized and/or neutralized as required. To protect the washing – up room staff, any apparatus containing dangerous chemicals must be rinsed thoroughly before being sent for further cleaning.
• All water supply gas and light were turned off, and doors locked if you are the last person to leave the laboratory.

1.6 GENERAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
1.6.1 Fume cupboards
• Experiments involving the use of toxic chemicals were carried out in fume cupboards as far as possible. Suitable respiratory protection should always be on hand. In particular, wear eye protection, wear protective gloves, and clean up both the work area and equipment thoroughly after use.
• Operations such as pouring flammable solvents or fuming acids, sieving powders or using chemical aerosol sprays were carried out in the fume cupboard.
1.6.2 General handling and Storage of Chemicals
• All containers of chemical reagents were labeled  properly with their chemical name, concentration, date of preparation, and your name. Toxic chemicals should be marked clearly poison, toxic or other suitable signs and carry a special warning.
• Laboratory reagents and chemicals were capped and placed on the appropriate shelves immediately after use, with their labels in the front.
• Flammable solvents were stored in an approved storage cabinet or well- ventilated area away from burners, hot plates, power sources, etc.
1.6.3 Handing Glassware and Sharps
• Damaged glassware was not stored in cupboards; you may either send it for repair or should be properly disposed in a separate labeled container for sharps disposal.
• Cut ends of glass rods and tubing should always be fire-polished before use.
• Always use gloves or sweep up broken glass and pick up any fine glass articles with wet paper toweling.
• Care is always taken in handling and disposing of drawn glass capillaries and hypodermic needles. They should be disposed in the appropriate ‘sharps containers’.
1.6.4 Pressurized Gas Cylinder
• All cylinders were labeled with its gas and the date in use.
• Compressed gas cylinders in the upright position were always supported and secured.
• Always use only right and permitted valves and regulators on compresses gas cylinders. Regulators must be free from any oil and grease.
• Leakages were always checked in the joints.
• Turn off a gas cylinder at the main valve after use release any excess pressure in the regulator.
• Always move large gas cylinder on an approved cylinder trolley. Do not drag, roll or slide cylinders.
• Warning notices were displayed where cylinders are used and stored. Stored pressurized gas cylinders in a cool, well ventilated place.
• The cylinder valve seating was freed from dust by blowing before screwing on the regulator head.
1.6.5 Hot Plates
To avoid an electrical spark hazard, only hot plates that have completely enclosed heating elements and solid state circuitry should be used in laboratories. Hot plates have been known to be the source of slow-starting laboratory fires.
1.6.6 Hosting Clamps
Rubber or plastic tubing being used for connections between bench services and equipment as well as all tubing leading to cup sinks or drains must be securely clamped.

1.7 HEALTH
1.7.1 Injury
Any accident resulting in suspected or actual personal injury must be reported to the safety office and state your location and nature of the accident so that emergency response personnel can be summoned for on-site assistance.
1.7.2 First Aid
When a major occurs, call the emergency contact number. The victim should be kept warm, lying down, and quit until medical assistance arrives. It is better not to move the injured person unless he or she is immediately threatened by further injury.
1.8 REPORTING
The necessary information regarding any accident should be promptly transmitted to the Safety office personnel on an incident report form. Keeping records of accidents is crucial to preventing further accident. Please remember that reporting ‘near accidents’ can be equally important to improving the safety of the laboratory.
1.8.1 General Laboratory Waste
The disposal of laboratory waste was being highly regulated and mishandling/management of any of these wastes carries great liabilities. Waste management programs required a high degree of cooperation from all personnel on campus to collect and label waste material from laboratories, specifically, biological, radioactive, and chemical wastes. Biological waste includes animal carcasses and bedding specimens, tissues, cell, bacteria and virus cultures, and needles, syringes and other sharps. Radioactive wastes are materials that have come in contact with radiochemical. Chemicals waste includes those generated in laboratories and other workplaces. Specific guidelines for disposal of chemicals, radioactive, and biological materials are provided in other sections. It is important not to mix any potentially hazardous waste with the normal laboratory waste.
In order to protect custodial workers, separate broken glass and sharps from the general wastes and put them in labeled cardboards or plastic boxes for collection. Broken thermometers containing mercury should be placed in a plastic bag, sealed, and disposed of in the same manner as chemical wastes.
1.8.2 Fire
1.8.2.1 Fire prevention
• All employees/students had a clear understanding of the fire drill
• Hot plates for other heating devices should not be placed against walls or close to bench partitions.
• Gas tubing must be checked regularly. Rejecting that shows hardening or cracking.
• Naked flames should only be used after due consideration on nay adjacent apparatus and experiments.
• Flammable liquids and compounds liable to give toxic fumes should never be poured directly into the sink or laboratory drainage systems. This applies also to compounds liable to give off toxic fumes.
• Flammable liquids should only be stored in special cabinets equipped with drip-trays or sumps.
1.8.2.2 Fire Extinguishers
• Knowledge of the position of fire extinguishers in the laboratory was known and learns the conditions under which they can be used. Extinguishers should be placed in a prominent position and unobstructed and the positions of the fire hose reel, water buckets and fire blanket.
• Remember that ordinary combustible materials (wood, paper) can be readily extinguished with water. Dry sand is a very effective means of extinguishing alkali metal fires, so is dry soda ash.
• The common type of the extinguisher used in the laboratory is BCF.
1.8.2.3 Fire Blanket
• Each laboratory should have a fire blanket for extinguishing fires on clothing.
• A person whose clothing catches fire should lie horizontally while another person extinguishers the fire with the blanket.
• Never use a fire blanket on any apparatus.

Brief History of Kaduna Polytechnic

HISTORY OF KADUNA POLYTECHNIC
The idea to start a technical institution in northern Nigeria started as far back as 1951, which resulted into the establishment of Kaduna technical institute in 1956. The establishment of technical institute, Kaduna was as a result of the acceptance by the brutish government on the recommendation of the Higher Education Commission, which suggested the upgrading of Yaba Higher College to Technical Institute and proposed Technical Institutes in Kaduna and Enugu.
The Northern Nigeria Executive Council by at meeting of 17th August, 1962, Conclusion No.1, re-designated the Technical Institute, Kaduna as the Polytechnic, Kaduna. It became Kaduna Polytechnic in 1968 by the Federal Government Decree No. 20 of 1968, which was revised in 1979 by Decree .No. 79. In 1991, the institution was taken over by the Federal Government under Decree No. 40 of the same year.
The institution was established with the objective of providing diverse instruction, training and research in technology, the sciences, commerce, the humanities and programs of in-service instruction for members of the public service in Nigeria. In 1968, it amalgamated two training centres, namely; the College of Science and Technology and Staff Development Centre, with Survey Unit joining later. These formed the nucleus of its four- college structure then.
Kaduna Polytechnic outside the Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, is known to be the biggest higher institution in Nigeria. For the avoidance of doubt, the comparison includes all other polytechnics, universities, colleges of education and other centres of higher educational pursuits in the country. It is also rated as the largest technical institution in Africa. It is a large institution in physical size and numerical strength of students and staff population and in the number of programmes it runs. It is a polytechnic built on four campuses, each campus is as big as many higher institutions in the country..
The late Premier of Northern Nigeria, Sir Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto and Late Alhaji Isa Kaita, Wazirin Katsina, the then Minister of Education contributed immensely towards the establishment of this institution. It is significant to note that the Late Premier, Sir Ahmadu Bello opened the Staff Development Centre officially in July 1964, after the first students’ admission in 1963. He also released his Deputy Secretary, Mr. T. H. Smith, (British) to become Director of the Centre. One of the major tasks performed by the Centre in the early days of its establishment was running the three Civil Defence and Home Guard Courses for Senior Civil Servants which the Centre organized at Kachia between 1964 and 1966. The symbol, “spider and its web"(Gizogizo), the crest for Kaduna Polytechnic was suggested during one of these courses. The symbol was designed by a local artist, Mr. Alexius Enche. The Gizogizo, which in many Nigerian and West African folklores symbolizes a hero, which by its sharpness, industry and tenacity always comes on "top"; this aptly symbolises Kaduna Polytechnic's desire to excel in and spread its services. The hexagonal shape of the crest symbolises the then six Northern States; the original owners of the institution.
The monumental growth and achievements, physically and intellectually have proved that the institution has maintained its Spider image. The "web" has spread from Nigeria to Africa and beyond (kuka, 2014).

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

SAFETY PRECUATIONS IN THE LABORATORY
Safety precaution is the action taken in advance to avoid or prevent accidents or
contact with pathogens and corrosion substances. For proper safety in the laboratory, the following precautions should be adhered:
 Wearing of clean laboratory coat in the laboratory and avoid going out with it.
 Use gloves with appropriate laboratory clothing, masks and goggles always when handling samples or reagent
 mouth pipetting of specimen is prohibited
 Avoid eating/drinking in the laboratory
 Avoid using damage test tubes or glass wares.
 Always discard needle of syringes in the safety boxes.
 Wash hands with soap before and after analysis of  specimens.
 Dispose of contaminated sharps materials after testing and discard container when full.
 Cover broken skin or open wounds with watertight dressing.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF PETROLEUM TO THE ENVIRONMENT

IMPACTS OF PETROLEUM INDUSRTY TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Impact of petroleum and its products on the environment is often positive and at the same time, negative because it is toxic to almost all life forms. This can be seen in various aspect as shown below:

 OIL SPILLAGE
This is the release of liquid hydrocarbon into the environment from a failed pipeline [corroded pipe]. This occurs on land and water bodies. This is a form of pollution that is detrimental. Oil spillage may also occur from as a result of release of products from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells. It can also be due to leakage caused by corrosion of pipelines as. It can be caused by spills of oily refuse or waste oil.
Oil spillage penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in water.
I. It affects evaporation and biodegradation.
II. Oil spillage causes plasmolysis in membranes of organisms in water.
III. It causes reduction in available oxygen in water and hence disrupt metabolism of organisms.
IV. It causes diseases when water is ingested.

POLLUTION
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment which causes adverse change. These contaminants are referred to as waste. Pollution in petroleum industry can take different forms such as noise, water, soil, air. (Blacksmith institute, 2009).
These products cause different types of pollution:

AIR POLLUTION
This is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. During oil spillage, toxic gases tend to evaporate to the atmosphere and thus, cause hazard to the e

NOISE POLLUTION
This is caused by machines used in refining processes. This tend to destroy hearing ability of workers.

THERMAL POLLUTION
This is the temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

WATER POLLUTION
This is the discharge of waste water from industrial waste (intentionally or through spillage) into surface waters. Discharge of chemical contaminants such as chlorine and hydrocarbons which tend to disrupt productivity and metabolism of organisms in water. These also cause contamination of drinking water.

LAND POLLUTION
This is the release of waste (pollutant) on earth surface. As we know that soil harbors living organisms mainly decomposers, this pollution tend to eliminate these organism. The release of this waste to the soil removes nitrogen oxide which makes the soil fertile and this changes the species composition microorganism in the ecosystem.
Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plant to carryout photosynthesis and also leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plant. Soil can be become infertile and unsuitable for plants and microorganism; this affects other larger organisms in the food web. Sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide can cause acid rain which losses the soil pH value (Richardson, 1989).

 CONTROL OF POLLUTION
1. Recycling of waste.
2. Reusing of waste to produce new product.
3. Reduction of spillage.
4. Safety precaution.
5. Mitigating

TOXICITY OF POLLUTANTS:
Crude is a mixture of many different kinds of organic compounds which are both beneficial and harmful to man, animal and plant. Some are highly toxic as well as Carcinogenic to many different organisms.

SAFETY AT WORK
Safety at work is ensured by the health and safety environment (HSE) and fire protection agency (FPA). These agencies make sure workers undergoes safety induction course which entail theory and practical work, to prevent hazard in work areas and environment (MAGAJI, 2014).

 SAFETY EQUIPMENT
These are equipment for protection against hazards during work. During refining processes, chemicals/gases are released into the atmosphere and can get into our body through:

1. Inhalation (Nose)
2. Ingestion (Mouth)
3. Absorption (Skin)
4. Injection (through bruises and wound)
This equipment are used for different parts of the body;
Breathing apparatus for nose
Goggles for eyes
Safety boots for legs
Helmets for head
Ear mule for ear
Acid suit/ canisters

SIWES TECHNICAL REPORT

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

 
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 HISTORY OF SIWES
The student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) was introduced by the industrial training fund (ITF) in 1973 as means of merging theoretical and practical experience, due to inadequate practical skills required for employment in industries by Nigerian graduate of tertiary institutions. SIWES has become a prerequisite for the award of diploma and degree certificate in specific disciplines in most institution of higher learning in Nigeria, in accordance with the education policy of the federal government.  The scheme was therefore designed to educate and expose students to various instruments, equipment, standard operating procedures skills and techniques which will be great relevance to them in respect to their course of study and also to prepare students to work under industrial scale which are likely to be encountered by the student after graduation.
ITF being a federal organization was established by decree 47 of 1971 and charged with the responsibility of promoting and encouraging the acquisition of skills in industries and commerce with view to generating a pool of indigenous trained man power sufficient to meet the need of the company.
A sector was intended by the fund in 1978 in its policy statement dealing with the issue of practical skills among logically trained professionals. The scheme was therefore designed to provide the much needed practical experience for the student undergoing all courses that demand exposure in industrial activities and to promote the much desired technical knowledge for students.
The need for student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) for students in higher institution of learning arose from the Federal Government directive that student should acquire practical knowledge of their respective discipline in the real industrial environment in order to prepare them to meet challenges of life work situations and also give them opportunity of using sophisticated industrial equipment which are too expensive for universities to afford

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
• To provide an avenue for students in Nigerian tertiary institutions to acquire industrial skills and experience in their course of study.
• To expose students to work methods and technique for handling equipment and machinery that may not be available in their institutions.
• To provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work situations, thereby bridging the gap between theory and practical.
• To prepare students for work ethics and work situations they are likely to face after graduation.
• To make students’ transition from there institution of learning to the labors market/industries easier and thus enhances students’ contact for later job placement after graduation.
• To enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entire educational process of preparing graduates for employment in industries.
      The industrial training period lasted for six months, all of which I was attached to the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC) Kaduna area laboratory.

1.3 BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF NAFDAC
National Agency For Food And Drug Administration And Control Kaduna Area Laboratory consists of many sections i.e the store were stocks are been kept before they are ordered by the offices or laboratories for use.It also has the sample reception were samples are allocated to Laboratory Numbers(LN) and Nafdac Registration Number(NRN) laboratory sections which consist of the water,drug ,mycotoxin,food,microbiology,cosmetics and chemistry laboratories.


1.4 MISSION AND VISION OF NAFDAC
VISION:
Safeguarding public health
1.5 MISSION STATEMENT:
To safeguard public health by ensuring that only the right quality drugs, food and other regulated products are manufactured, imported, exported, advertised, distributed, sold and used.
1.6 STRUCTURE OF NAFDAC
(NAFDAC) is headed by chairman who presides over a governing council appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Minister of Health.’’ Other council members are:
The permanent secretary of the Ministry of Health.
• The Director-General of NAFDAC.
• Standard organization of Nigeria (SON)
• The National institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIDPR).
• The chairman of the pharmacist’ council of Nigeria (PCN)
• The chairman of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA).
• A representative each of the Pharmaceutical Group and the Food and Beverages Group of the Manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria.
          Three people from the general public are also represented in the council.                                                                                                                                                                There are nine (9) directorates in the agency which play specific roles in achieving NAFDAC’s mandate. The directorates are as follows:

• Administration and Human Resources Directorate: This directorate handles staff recruitment/appointment, staff promotion, transfer and posting in the agency. It is also involved in the documentation of new staff, prepares staff nominal roll and issues identity cards.
• Finance and Accounts Directorate: This directorate co-ordinates the general day to day financial functions of the agency disburse funds of the agency as approved by the management, pay all staff salaries as at when due, prepare budget estimate for the agency etc.
• Directorate of Planning, Research and Statistics (PRS): This is a service directorate that is responsible for planning, researching and collection of statistical data as well as co-coordinating and documenting the activities of the other entire directorate for efficient achievement of the goals of the agency. They also co-ordinate pharmacy and medical internship and industrial attachment training program for the agency.
• Laboratory Services Directorate: This directorate is task with the analysis and pronouncement of the quality and safety of food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, chemical, detergent, drinks, bottled and packaged water. It also serves as reference laboratory for the other government agencies.
• Establishment Inspection Directorate (EID): This directorate is responsible for good manufacturing practices, inspection of local establishment engaged in the manufacturing, sale, storage, distribution and use of food drugs, medical devices etc. They also investigate consumer complaints and alert notices.
• Ports Inspection Directorate (PID): This directorate is responsible for the regulatory activities concerning the movement of drugs, food, package water, cosmetics etc. at all ports of entry and border post, airports and islanders container terminals in the country.
• Enforcement Directorate: This directorate handles all matters concerning enforcement in its entire ramification which involves the prosecution of manufactures and importer of fake product.
• Registration and Regulation Directorate (R & R): This directorate undertakes the registration of drug, food and other regulated products locally manufactured, imported, sold and advertised in Nigeria. It also monitors national and international scientific development and initiatives that may affect public health and develops appropriate measure to address it.
• Narcotics and Controlled Substances Directorate: This directorate controls the importation, manufacture and sales of narcotics and psychotropic substances with the main objective of ensuring that the drugs or other controlled substances like food items are available only for consumption purposes.

1.7 GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY
1.7.1 Background
It should be noted that the safety rules contained herein are guidelines only. Any individual engaged in laboratory work or activities must recognize that there are biological hazards, chemical hazards or radiation hazards, all of which are categories of risk the laboratory worker may be susceptible to. In addition, it is necessary to ensure that any statutory safety regulations or codes of practice are observed and that adequate information relating to the hazards is available.
1.7.2 Responsibility
The basic accountability lies with the Head of Laboratory Unit. He may in turn delegate responsibilities. However, it must be unequivocally clear that safety is everybody’s responsibility. The Unit Heads must alert co-workers on the possible hazards, their prevention, suitable waste disposal methods, the consequences of an accident, and the actions to take in case of an accident.
All employees and students are required to learn and understand the properties of the chemicals they work with as well as the operational features of laboratory equipment and to follow all precautions applicable to each task. In case of any sudden damage or injury, the employee and student should act to protect themselves and others in the area. He or she should also report to the supervisor immediately on any unsafe or hazardous conditions in their work area.
1.7.3 General Laboratory Safety
1.7.3.1Emergency Planning
There is the need to be acquainted with the layout of the building and the location of emergency exits, emergency exit routes applicable to a particular laboratory, emergency telephones, fire–fighting equipment and how it works, emergency shower, and first aid equipment.

1.7.3.2 Position and Signs
I made sure that I understood all the safety signs. Furthermore, the name of the person to contact for technical information and guidance in case of emergency should be posted along with other emergency information and notices to employees/students.
1.7.3.3 Corridors and Entrance
All corridors, doorways, especially emergency exits, stairs are always kept free from obstruction. These include trolleys and portable equipment, delivered stores etc. Likewise, fire blankets, showers and extinguishers must be kept clear of other equipment.
1.8 LABORATORY HYGIENE
• Appropriate personal protections were used and hands regularly washed when working with chemical regents, especially before any meals.
• Food and drink should were not stored or prepared in laboratories, or chemical storerooms.
• Smoking in laboratories was strictly prohibited.
• Always use pipette fillers or measuring cylinder, never use mouth to pipette reagents
• Wearing of contact lenses in the laboratory was strongly discouraged.
1.9 BASIC LABORATORY PRECAUTIONS AND GENERAL HOUSEKEEPING
• Appropriate personal protective equipment was worn when you are working in the laboratory and remove them before leaving the laboratory.
• All work benches must be kept clean at all time and particularly free from chemicals and unnecessary apparatus.
• It is recommended to clean up work area after each experiment. Any apparatus which may have been contaminated with harmful chemicals should be rinsed before being left for final cleaning. Rinse should be containerized and/or neutralized as required. To protect the washing – up room staff, any apparatus containing dangerous chemicals must be rinsed thoroughly before being sent for further cleaning.
• All water supply gas and light were turned off, and doors locked if you are the last person to leave the laboratory.

1.10 HEALTH
1.10.1 Injury
Any accident resulting in suspected or actual personal injury must be reported to the safety office and state your location and nature of the accident so that emergency response personnel can be summoned for on-site assistance.
1.10.2 First Aid
When a major occurs, call the emergency contact number. The victim should be kept warm, lying down, and quit until medical assistance arrives. It is better not to move the injured person unless he or she is immediately threatened by further injury.
1.11 REPORTING
The necessary information regarding any accident should be promptly transmitted to the Safety office personnel on an incident report form. Keeping records of accidents is crucial to preventing further accident. Please remember that reporting ‘near accidents’ can be equally important to improving the safety of the laboratory.











CHAPTER TWO
2.1 PREPARATION OF REAGENTS
2.11 Preparation of 25% Hydrochloric acid
25ml of concentrated Hydrochloric acid was measured under the fume cupboard into a 100ml volumetric flask containing a considerable amount of distilled water, more distilled water was added to make up to the mark
2.12 Preparation of Sodium Hexane Sulphonic Acid Buffer
1.8822g of Sodium Hexane sulphonic acid salt was weighed into a 2 litre volumetric flask. 1500ml of distilled water was added and shaken to dissolve. 20ml of glacial acetic acid was added and made up to the mark with distilled water. The solution was sonnicated in a sonnicator to remove air bubbles.
2.13 Preparation of 0.1M Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)
17.0g of AgNO3 salt was weighed into a 1-litre volumetric flask and dissolved with adequate quantity of distilled water. The solution was made up to the 1-litre mark with distilled water
2.14 Preparation of 1.0M H2SO4
The relation below was used to calculate the volume of concentrated H2SO4 to be measured in other to prepare a 1.0M H2SO4 solution in a required amount.

Where:
M= Molar Mass of H2SO4 = 9g/mol
C= Concentration of H2SO4 to be prepared (Known) =1.0M
V= Volume of H2SO4 to be prepared (Known) =500ml
P= Percentage Purity (Usually found on the container’s label) =36.0%
D= Density of H2SO4 (Usually found on the container’s label) = 1.84g/cm3


V2= 74ml
74ml of conc. H2SO4 was measured under the fume cupboard using a 100ml measuring cylinder and was transferred into a 500ml volumetric flask containing some quantity of distilled water. The solution was then made up to 500ml with more distilled water
2.15 Preparation of 10M Ammonia solution
The equation below was used to calculate the quantity of concentrated ammonia required to produce 10M ammonia solution

Where:
M= Molar Mass of Ammonia = 17g/mol
C= Concentration of Ammonia to be prepared (Known) =10.0M
V= Volume of H2SO4 to be prepared (Known) =100ml
P= Percentage Purity (Usually found on the container’s label) =25.0%
D= Density of H2SO4 (Usually found on the container’s label) = 0.903g/cm3


V2= 75ml
75ml of concentrated ammonia was measured under the fume cupboard using a measuring cylinder and was transferred into a 100ml volumetric flask. It was then diluted with distilled water to the 100ml mark
2.16 Preparation of 50% Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
250g of NaOH crystals were weighed and dissolved in a beaker with adequate amount of distilled water which was placed under the influence of running water. The dissolved NaOH was transferred into a 500ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with distilled water
2.17 Preparation of 70-30 Methanol-Water

700ml of Methanol was measured and mixed with 300ml of distilled water in a 1000ml volumetric flask
2.18 Preparation of Ammonium Chloride Buffer Solution pH 10.8
5.4g of ammonium chloride salt was weighed and dissolved in 20ml of distilled water. 35ml of 10M ammonia solution was added and diluted to the mark in a 100ml volumetric flask with distilled water
2.19 Preparation of Ascorbic acid solution.
0.5g of Ascorbic Acid powder was weighted and dissolved in 5ml of water and diluted to 500ml with dimethyl formamide and wrapped with foil paper. Note: preparation should be done in the dark.


2.10 Preparation of 1% starch indicator

10g of starch was weighed and dissolved in hot water and made up to volume with hot water in 1000ml volumetric flask.
Table 1.1: List of  equipments of nafdac based on laboratories
Laboratories Equipments
Mycotoxin a) Micropipette
b) Orbital Shaker
Drug a) Disintegration Tester
b) Analytical Balance
Water a) Refridgerator
b) UV Spectrophotometer

2.2 MYCOTOXIN LABORATORY:

Table 1.2: List of Mycotoxins and their precursors
Mycotoxins        Precursors
Aflatoxins       Aspergilusparasiticus and flavus
Ochratoxins       Aspergilus and penecilliumspp
Fumonisins     Fusariumspp
Zearalenone       Fusariumspp
Patulins       Aspergilus and penecilliumspp
Ergot alkaloids Clavicepsspp
Trichothecenes Fusariumspp

Other analysis carried out in mycotoxin laboratory includes Melamine test that is an adulterant added to milk samples, test for preservatives such as sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, vitamin analysis such as vitamin C, B1, B2, B3, B6 and artificial sweeteners such as aspartame and Acesulfume-K.
2.21 AFLATOXIN
This is a sub-class of mycotoxins which is a secondary metabolite of the fungi Aspergillusflavus. There are four principal classes of aflatoxins: B1, B2, G1 and G2 which are named according to their respective fluorescent properties. Aflatoxin is the most frequently encountered of the group and the most toxic. Aflatoxins can be found mainly in cereals, corn, peanuts and nuts. Aflatoxins can cause liver disease in animals and may cause decreased production (milk, eggs, animal weight). Aflatoxin B1 is a potent human carcinogen and may contribute to human liver cancer. Consequently, NAFDAC has set action limit on food products likely to contain aflatoxin: For “ready to eat” food products the maximum limit is 4ppb while, for food products that need further processing is 10ppb. (Aflatoxin test kit)
2.22   TOTAL AFLATOXIN ANALYSIS USING ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSOBENT ASSAY (ELISA)
Aim: To determine the concentration of total aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in food sample
Apparatus/Reagents: Test tubes, Micro pipette, Wattman filter paper, funnel, reagent bottle, orbital shaker, measuring cylinder, Analytical weighing balance, Total aflatoxin test kit, 70:30 Methanol-water.
Samples: Yam flour and wheat
Principle: The assay is a direct competitive enzyme linked Immunosorbent assay. Aflatoxins are extracted using 70% methanol. The extracted sample and enzyme-conjugated aflatoxin are mixed and added to the antibody coated micro wells. Aflatoxin in the sample and control standard are then allowed to compete with enzyme conjugated aflatoxin for the limited antibody binding site. After washing, an enzyme substrate is added and a blue color develops. The intensity of the color is inversely proportional to the concentration of aflatoxin in the sample. A stop solution is then added which changes the color to yellow. The micro wells strips are measured optically using the ELISA reader with absorbance filter of 450nm.
Procedure: 5g of the sample was weighed into the reagent bottle and 25ml of 70/30 (v/v) methanol-water extraction solvent was added to sample. Extraction is always done in the ratio of 1:5 (w/w) of sample extraction solvent respectively. The sample was then vigorously shook using orbital shaker at 250 rounds per minute (rpm) for 3minutes.The sample was then allowed to settle, and then filtered using Whatman filter paper and the filtrate was then collected into the test tube.
200µl of conjugate was pipetted using a 200µl pipette and dispensed into each of the mixing wells, 100µl of standard (0, 1, 2, 4, 10 and 20ppb) and sample was pipetted using 100µl micro litre pipette and added to mixing wells. Each well was mixed carefully by pipetting up and down 3 times and immediately 100µl of contents was transferred from each dilution well into a corresponding antibody coated micro well.
It was then incubated at room temperature for 15minutes. Each of the content of the micro well strips was then emptied into waste container and washed by filling with distilled water and then dumping the water from the micro well strips. This was repeated 4 times and the micro well strips were dried by hitting it against an absorbent (tissue) paper. 100µl of the substrate was pipetted using a 100µl pipette into each micro well strip and Incubated at room temperature for 5minutes after which a blue color developed, 100µl of stop solution was measured using a 100µl pipette and dispensed into each micro well strip. On adding stop solution color changed from blue to yellow, the micro well strips were then read using ELISA machine.
Result:
Analytes Absorbance Concentration (ppb)
Standard 1 2.103 0
Standard 2 1.922 1
Standard 3 1.619 2
Standard 4 1.282 4
Standard 5 0.820 10
Standard 6 0.562 20
Yam flour 0.412 7.2
Wheat 1.341 4.1
A sample result of aflatoxin from ELISA reader.


The graph of absorbance against concentration(ppb)
Discussion of Result: From the above curve, the wheat sample has a total aflatoxin concentration of 4.1ppb which is within the set limit for other food samples (i.e. 10ppb) while the yam flour is off curve because the sample has a value of total aflatoxin concentration greater than 20ppb. Thus, the wheat sample passed while the yam flour sample failed the total aflatoxin test
2.23 MELAMINE IN MILK
Melamine is an organic base with the chemical formula of C3H6N6 and the IUPAC name of 1, 3, 5-triazine-2, 4, 6-triamine (Susan et al., 1989). Melamine is often combined with formaldehyde to produce melamine resin, a synthetic polymer which is fire resistant and heat tolerant. Melamine became a topic of much discussion in early 2007 when veterinary scientists determined it to be the cause of hundreds of pet deaths because of pet food contamination. Prior to this report, melamine has been regarded as non- toxic or minimally toxic. Some manufacturers intentionally add melamine to their products as a means of improving the nutritional value. It is a poison that can cause damage to the kidney and other target organs. (Melnick RL et al., 1984) Some milk suppliers add melamine to artificially inflate the protein level. The high nitrogen- 66% gives it the analytical characteristics of protein molecules.
The maximum level of melamine as set by NAFDAC is 2.5ppm for milk samples consumed by adults and 1.0ppm for milk samples consumed by children
.
2.24 MELAMINE ANALYSIS IN A MILK SAMPLE
Aim: To quantitatively determine the concentration of melamine in the milk sample
Method: ELISA
Principle: The sample is prepared and analyzed by ELISA according to the same principle as that of aflatoxin analysis
Materials/Reagents: Melamine test kit, centrifuge, centrifuge tube, micro pipette, ELISA reader, tissue paper, milk sample and vortex machine
Procedure: 1g of the sample was weighed into the centrifuge tube and 5ml of distilled water was added and vortexed, after which it was centrifuged at 3000rpm for 20minutes. 300µl was transferred into a test tube and 150µl of the supernatant of the centrifuged sample was added to the test tube containing the diluents and vortexed. To the antibody-coated micro wells,150µl of the melamine standard containing (0,20,100,500ppb) were each transferred to separate wells and then 150µl of the diluted sample was transferred  another separate well after which 50µl of enzyme-substrate conjugate was added to all the wells, mixed and incubated for 30minutes. After the incubation, the wells were washed using distilled water, 100µl of substrate was added and incubated for another 30minutes at room temperature after which 100µl stop solution was added and the quantitative determination was achieved using ELISA (micro plate) reader at 450nm.

Result:
Analytes Absorbance Concentration (ppb)
Standard1 0.832 0
Standard2 0.737 20
Standard3 0.605 100
Standard4 0.430 500
Sample A 0.434 495

Table: Result on melamine analysis

Fig: The graph of absorbance against concentration (ppb) for melamine
Calculation:
From the graph the melamine concentration was 495ppb. However, the limit given is in parts per million (ppm). Therefore, to express the result in ppm, we use this relation:

                                                                        1000
Where,
ppb = value obtained in PPB
 0.5 = dilution factor (300diluent/150 supernatant)
5   = volume of water added to milk sample
1000 = conversion factor

Melamine (ppm) = 1.24ppm
Discussion of Result: The estimated concentration of melamine in the milk sample was 1.49ppm and since the limit according to NAFDAC for a milk sample is 2.5ppm, the is certified to have passed the melamine test
CHAPTER THREE
3.O DRUG COMPLIANCE/WATER LABORATORY

3.1 DRUG LABORATORY:
PARAMETERS CARRIED OUT ON DRUG SAMPLES
Drug laboratory is responsible for the analysis of drugs, cosmetics, soap, detergents and medical devices. Drug could be in form of tablet, capsule or syrup which allows different parameters to be used. The general parameters investigated in the assay of drug samples can be placed in three categories depending on the form of the drug, namely:

TABLET/CAPSULE
• Appearance, size, coating, shape, marking, color and odor
• Average weight
• Uniformity of weight
• Hardness( tablets only)
• Disintegration time
• Dissolution time
• Identification
• Assay of the active ingredient
MIXTURES/ SYRUPS
• Identification
• PH determination
• Filling volume
• Weight per 5 ml
• Appearance
• Purity
• Assay of the active ingredient
INJECTION
• Physical appearance
• PH determination
• Sterility test
• Weight per 5ml
• Filling volume
• Assay of the active ingredient
MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN DRUG LABORATORY
• Desiccators
• hotplate
• centrifuge machine
• disintegration tester
• water bath
• ultrasonic bath
• Water distiller
• drying cabinet
• fume cupboard
• analytical balance
• UV spectrophotometer
• PH meter
• Dissolution tester
• Hardness tester
• TLC( thin layer chromatography)
• HPLC( high performance liquid chromatography)


A drug is a substance used to treat an illness, relieve a symptom, or modify a chemical process in the body for a specific purpose. These drugs are analyzed to know if they actually contain what the manufacturer claims and they are up to the amount claimed (i.e. the strength of the active pharmaceutical ingredient). The time taken for a drug active to be released (to be effective) in the body and the amount released are also taken into consideration.
A drug sample contains the following;
1. Excipient: An ingredient that is intentionally added to a drug for purposes other than the therapeutic or diagnostic effect at the intended dosage. It acts as a vehicle and as a binder for the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). A good excipient must be inert so as not to react with the API and must be able to dissolve in physiological medium.(B.P. 2007)
2. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API): This is the active substance of a drug which produces the medical healing process. (B.P. 2007)
3. Coating: Most drugs are covered with a thin layer to enhance the taste by sugar coating. Other drugs are film coated or enteric coated to protect from light and delay release of API respectively.(B.P.2007)
3.11 PHYSICAL ANALYSES
Physical analysis  Includes :- Net weight; Average weight; Weight uniformity; Appearance; %filled volume; Disintegration time; Hardness test; Weight/volume and pH.
Procedure 1: Net weight
       This is done for drugs that are in powdered form, packaged in sachet or any container. This is achieved by taking the weight of the sample content and container (w1) and then emptying the container and taking the weight of empty container (w2). Difference between w1 and w2 is the net weight w3.

Procedure 2:  Average weight
a. For Tablets;
       The weight of ten tablets were randomly taken individually and added together then divided by the number of tablets weighed.
b. For Capsule;
       The weights of ten capsules were individually taken (w1) and the content was emptied and the emptied container was weighed as (w2) and then the difference between w1 and w2 = w3 which was recorded as weight of the content. Therefore, the average weight = total w3/number of capsule weighed.
Procedure 3: Percentage deviation (%d)
This is given by:
%d = y x average weight/100
Where (y = 10 when average weight ≤ 80mg, y = 7.5 when average weight ≤ 250mg, y = 5 when average weight ˃250mg).
Upper limit = Average weight + %d
Lower limit = Average weight - %d
Procedure 4: Uniformity of weight
       A drug is said to be uniform when not more than two tablets falls outside the upper and lower limits. But if otherwise, the drug will be said to be non-uniform.
Procedure 5: Weight per Volume
       This is done for syrups, injection and suspension. It depends on the manufacturer’s declaration of volume of the medicine that will contain a certain mass of the active. For example, if a drug has- every 5ml contains Xmg of the active ingredient; weight/5ml would be taken
Procedure 6: Fill volume
      This is done for suspension, injection and syrup. The volume of the content is measured using measuring cylinder.


                                           The limit is not less than 95%
Procedure 7: pH
      This is done for suspension and syrups to check the degree of acidity and alkalinity of the drugs. And the range varies depending on the composition and the use of the drug. This is achieved using a calibrated pH meter.
Procedure 8: Disintegration test
This is to check approximately the time it will take the drug to break down (dissolves) in the body. The maximum times are 15 and 60minutes for uncoated tablets, capsules and coated drugs respectively.
This is done by turning on the automatic disintegration machine and switching on the heater to raise the temperature to 37oC. The beakers were filled with 900ml of distilled water, the drug was dropped into the basket, the machine was started, and the time taken for each drug to dissociate completely was noted.
Note: when it is stated on the drug slow release, disintegration test is not carried out on it.
Procedure 9: Hardness test.
The drug is not expected to be too hard (to ensure easy disintegration) or too soft (to withstand packaging and transportation). This measurement is achieved using the hardness tester machine which measures the force (N) required to break a certain drug. The length and diameter of drug is measured in millimeters, the values were inputted into the machine, the drug is placed within the jaws of the machine, and ok button was pressed to start. The accepted range is 40-300N.
3.12 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
This includes dissolution test and content determination. The methods employed in content determination are: Titration; spectrophotometry; chromatography IS
Procedure 10: Dissolution test
This is to check the rate at which active is released in the body over a given period of time. This is achieved by dissolving the sample and analysing it and concurrently analysing the standard that would have the concentration equal to the one declared. It is expected that the sample should be able to release not less than 75% of its active.
 Procedure 11: Content determination
This is achieved by any of the following: titration, HPLC or spectrophotometry.





3.2 WATER LABORATORY:

PARAMETERS CARRIED OUT IN WATER LAB
a) SENSORY PARAMETER
 Odor
 Taste
 Appearance
b)PHYSICAL PARAMETER
 Filling/Net Volume
 pH
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
c)CHEMICAL PARAMETER
 Total Alkalinity Test
 Free Dissolved Carbon iv oxide (CO2) Test
 Total Sodium Test (Sodium A and B)
 Total Hardness Test
 Chloride Test
 Sulfate Test
 Potassium Test

 Nitrite (Qualitative and Quantitative) Test

3.21 PARAMETERS CARRIED OUT IN WATER LABORATORY
SENSORY PARAMETER
The analyses carried out under this parameter are done with the aid of functional sensory organs such as the tongue, eyes and nose of the analyst.
Portable water for consumption by convention is expected to be colorless, odorless and tasteless as such, any water sample without these characteristics is not considered fit for drinking.
Aim: To check for the presence of particles, odor and taste in water samples
Materials: Eyes, Tongue and Nose
Procedure:
The sachet water sample was brought out and observed with the eyes under a light source for the presence of particles. The sachet was then opened and 1ml of the water sample was then tasted with the tongue to determine if there is any detectable taste in the water. Finally, the water sample was perceived for odor with the nose
Observation
After the analyses, the water was observed and found to be void of particles, taste and odor
Discussion of Result:
The water sample is said to have passed all the sensory parameters since particles, taste and odor has been found to be absent in it.PHYSICAL PARAMETER
The analyses carried out under this parameter do not undergo any chemical reaction and have physical explanation as to the result gotten for each analysis carried out under this parameter. The analyses include: the net/ filling volume, pH and Total dissolved solid
Net/Filling Volume
This is a measure of the water sample in centiliter (Cl). Filling volume is the measure of the actual volume to the declared volume by the manufacturer. Net volume is carried out to determine if the declared volume by the manufacturer correlates with measured volume (actual volume) in the laboratory.
Aim: To measure the volume of water per sachet water
Apparatus: 1000ml Measuring cylinder and scissors
Procedure:
A 1000ml measuring cylinder was washed and dried. The sachet water was opened with a pair of scissors and emptied into the measuring cylinder. The actual volume known as the measured volume was noted and the declared volume on the water sachet was also noted
Result:
The measured volume was 580ml (58Cl)
The declared volume was 600ml (60Cl)
Calculation:
The formula below was applied to determine the percentagevolume


% Filling Volume = 96.7%
Discussion of Result:
The water sample is declared to have passes the filling volume analysis because the accepted range approved by NAFDAC is 95%-110% for a water sample to be considered to have passed this parameter. Since the value obtained is 96.7%, the water sample has passed this analysis
Test For The pH of Water
Aim: To determine the pH of water sample
Apparatus: pH meter, cotton wool, beakers
Reagents: Buffer 4.1, 7.0 & 10.0, distilled water, water sample
Principle:
pH is defined as the degree acidity or alkalinity of a substance. It is also a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration. This analysis is carried out with the aid of a pH meter. The pH scale shows the intensity of the acidic or basic character of a substance at a given temperature, such that a value equal to 7 on the pH scale indicates a neutral substance, a value less than 7 or that falls within the range of 1-6.9 indicates an acidic substance while a value above 7 or falls within 7.1 -14.0 is considered basic (alkaline). The presence of dissolved carbon IV oxide leads to a decrease in the pH value hence makes such water sample more acidic
Procedure:
The pH meter was turned on and the buffer solutions (4.1, 7.0 & 10.0) were poured into three different beakers in ascending order. It was used to calibrate (standardize) the pH meter by inserting the pH sensor (pH electrode) into each of the buffer solution. The pH sensor was rinsed and cleaned with cotton wool after removing it from each of the buffer solution. The sample was then transferred into a beaker, the pH electrode was inserted into it and left to stabilize. The value was then recorded as the pH of the water sample
Result:
Name of Sample                  pH
Sample P Table water         7.5
Sample J Table water    6.8
Sample R Table water         8.8
Table: Name of sample and their respective pH
Discussion of Result:
From the above result, Precious table water and Jagular water passed the pH test while Crown table water failed the pH test because the accepted range of pH for water meant for consumption is 6.5-8.5. Since the pH of Crown table water is beyond the acceptable range, it thus failed the pH test while the remaining passed the test because it is found within the accepted range for a consumable water.


CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
TEST FOR FREE DISSOLVED CARBON IV OXIDE (CO2)
Aim: To determine the amount of CO2 dissolved in water
Apparatus: Titration bottles, LaMotte CO2 Test Kit(containing direct reading titrator)
Reagents: CO2 Reagent A (0.1% NaOH), Phenolphthalein Indicator
Method: Titration
Principle:
The principle behind the test for free dissolved CO2 is a neutralization reaction between an acid and a base. Carbon IV Oxide is usually present in water in the form of bicarbonates, which is an acid. Addition of phenolphthalein indicator yields a colorless solution due to the water sample’s acidic condition. The solution is then titrated against Reagent A, which constitutes a base until a faint pink color that persists is observed as the end point
Procedure:
20ml of the water sample was measured and two (2) drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added to the sample, which left the sample colorless. The direct reading titrator was filled with CO2 Reagent A and was titrated drop wise against the water sample until a faint pink color, which persisted for thirty seconds, was observed. The reading was taken from the titrator and recorded in PPM
 
Result:
Sample Name       Titre Value (PPM)
Sample A Table water 25
Sample B Table water         30
Sample C Table water   20
Table: Titre values of CO2 in different water samples
Discussion of Result:
From the above readings, the three water samples listed are said to have passed the CO2 test because they are below 50PPM, which is the maximum permitted concentration. This is because the concentration of CO2 in water is an indication of the microbial activity present or contamination and also a decrease in pH value leading to an acidic water sample
3.22 CHLORIDE TEST
Chloride is formed when chlorine dissolves in water. Chlorine is usually added to water during the purification process because of its sterile ability to kill and destroy microorganisms. It is also a dietary mineral needed by the body for optimum health. Chlorine channels are important for setting cell resting membrane potential and maintaining proper cell volume. Chloride ions are derived mostly from salt deposits that leach into water reserves. Industrial processes combined with poor maintenance of filters and controls can also lead to a high chloride concentration
Aim: To determine the concentration of chloride ions in water
Method: Titration
Materials/Reagents: Titration bottles, LaMotte Chloride Test Kit Containing Direct reading titrator, Chloride reagent A (5% Potassium Chromate), Chloride reagent B (Silver Nitrate), Phenolphthalein Indicator
 
Principle: The chloride ions present in the water sample reacts with silver nitrate in the presence of potassium chromate as indicator to yield an orange-brown colored salt
2AgNO3 + 2Cl           2AgCl         +                 2NO3
      Orange- Brown
Procedure:
10ml of the water sample was measured into the titration bottle. One drop of phenolphthalein indicator was added and three drops of chloride reagent A was added which changed the color to yellow. The direct reading titrator was filled with chloride reagent B and titrated against the solution until there was a color change from yellow to orange. The reading was taken and recorded in PPM
Result:
Sample Name Titre Value (PPM)
Sample A Table water 180
Sample B Table water          210

Discussion of Result:
Since the maximum concentration of chloride permitted in any water sample is 200PPM, Tiana Table water is certified to have passed the test while Joy water is unsatisfactory because the concentration of chloride is beyond the acceptable limit

2.23 NITRITE TEST
Nitrite is formed in water when nitrogen reacts with oxygen. Nitrite in the stomach react with food protein to give N-Nitroso compounds, these compounds are carcinogenic in test animals. Nitrite reacts with hemoglobin in the blood, oxidizing its divalent iron to a trivalent form creating met-hemoglobin. This cannot bond with oxygen, hence decreases the capacity of the blood to transport oxygen. So less oxygen is transported from the lungs to body tissues, thus causing met- hemoglobinemia. Looking at adverse health effect nitrite have to the body WHO limit the acceptable to be 0.1ppm


Chemistry of qualitative test for nitrite in water.
Apparatus: Measuring cylinder, conical flak, Smart spectrophotometer and cuvette
Reagents: Nitrite A (containing Sulphanlinic acid, glacial acetic acid and distilled water), Nitrite B (containing N-Napthylamine, glacial acetic acid and distilled water), Mixed acid, Color developing reagent and water sample.
PRINCIPLE: Nitrite would be qualitatively determined and if present, the amount would be quantified using LaMotte smart spectrophotometer set at a wavelength of 523nm.
Procedure:
Qualitative Nitrite Test: 50ml of the water samples were measured into conical flasks, 1ml each of both Nitrite A and B were added, shaken and left to stand for ten minutes. The presence or absence of a pink coloration was noted which indicated the presence or absence of nitrite ions in the water samples
Quantitative Nitrite Test: 10ml of sample water was measured in a cuvette and was scanned as blank. 5 ml water was removed from cuvette and made to mark with mixed acid reagent. Two (2) spoons of color developing reagent were then added. The mixture was left for 5 minutes before scanning in the spectrophotometer. The concentration was taken and recorded.
Result:
SAMPLE Color formed Inference Comment
      A Colorless No nitrite Satisfactory
      B Pink color Nitrite present Unsatisfactory
Amount of Nitrite (PPM) = Nitrite conc. x 3.3
Amount of Nitrite (sample A) = 0.01 x 3.3
Amount of Nitrite (sample A) = 0.033PPM
Amount of Nitrite (sample B) = 0.09 x 3.3
Amount of Nitrite (sample B) = 0.297PPM
Discussion of Result: The maximum limit for nitrite is 0.1ppm. Thus, sample A has passed Nitrite parameter while sample B has failed nitrite parameter
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Student Industrial Working Experience Scheme exposes students to many procedures used for analysis and also the fundamental working principles of these procedures which are the theories being taught in schools. The training is very educative and it also makes students appreciate their professsions and also gives them the opportunity to use and see other equipments that are not affordable by their schools. I absolutely agree with the fact that “knowledge is wealth” so I will advise Nigerian students to make knowledge their priority and money secondary.
4.1 RECOMMENDATION
This program has really bridged the gap between theories and practical in my academics. I was really exposed to the goal and objectives of SIWES. Nevertheless, emphasis should be laid on the following;
• Placement of students to various industries by the school authority so as to ensure that every student participate in the training.
• Payment of student’s monthly allowance by employers, as this will help students participate genuinely in the programme.
• There should be monthly observation of the students on industrial training by the union based training staff.
• Students should be regular and punctual at respective places of attachment

REFERENCES
Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry twenty-sixth edition-Robert K. Murray, Daryl K. Granner, Joe C. Davis, Peter A. Mayes, Victor W. Rodwell, PhD
 NAFDAC (2007). Laboratory Manual. Central Laboratory, Oshodi, Lagos.
Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, Fourth Edition- David Nelson and M. Cox
 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) NAFDAC Central Laboratory Complex, Oshodi.
 United State Pharmacopoeia (USP) Volume 1, 2 and 3
 International Pharmacopoeia (IP) 2008.
 Marks’ Basic Medical Biochemistry A Clinical Approach, 2nd Edition - Colleen Smith
Wikipedia

BRIEF EXPOSITION ON NAFDAC

The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), established by decree No.15 of 1993 as amended is a parastatal of the Federal ministry of Health, with the mandate to regulate and control quality standard for foods, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, chemicals, Detergents and packaged water imported, manufactured locally and distributed in Nigeria.

To achieve this mandate, the agency embarks in various activities. These include:

 Inspection of regulated products at ports of entry and land borders. Regulate and control the importation, exportation, manufacture, advertisement, distribution, sale and use of drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals.

 Compile and publish relevant data resulting from the performance of the function of the Agency or from other source.

 Sponsor such national and international conference as it may consider appropriate.

 Liaise with relevant establishments within and outside Nigeria in pursuance of its functions.

 Conducts appropriate test and ensure compliance with standard specifications designated and approved by the council of effective control of quality of food, drug, cosmetics, `medical devices, water and chemicals with their raw materials as well as their production processes in factories and other establishments.

 Undertake appropriate investigation into the production premises and raw materials for food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals and establish relevant quality assurance system, including certification of the production sites and the regulated products.

 Compile standard specifications and regulations and guidelines for the production, importation, exportation, sale and distribution of food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals.

 Undertake inspection of imported food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals and establish relevant quality assurance system, including certification of the production site and of the regulated product.

 Undertake the registration of food, drugs, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals.

 Control the exportation and issue quality certification of foods, drugs, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals intended for export.

 Establish and maintain relevant laboratories or other institutions in strategic areas of Nigeria as may be necessary for performance of its functions.

 Pronounce on the quality and safety of food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, bottled water and chemicals after appropriate analysis.

 Undertake measures to ensure that the use of narcotics drugs and psychotropic substances as well as other controlled substances.

MANDATE OF THE ORGANIZATION

The scope of this mandate puts the responsibility of investigate and pronounces on the compendia (collection of detailed item of information) requirements of regulated products. It undertakes analysis of foods, drugs, cosmetics, packaged water and medical device using the standard operation procedure; confirm each test base on the quality assurance.

MISSION AND VISION OF NAFDAC

VISION:

Safeguarding the health of the nation

MISSION STATEMENT:

To safeguard public health by ensuring that only the right quality drugs, food and other regulated products are manufactured, imported, exported, advertised, distributed, sold and used.

 STRUCTURE OF NAFDAC

(NAFDAC) is headed by a chairman who presides over a governing council appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Minister of Health. Other council members are:

1. The permanent secretary of the Ministry of Health.

2. The Director-General of NAFDAC.

3. Standard organization of Nigeria (SON)

4. The National institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIDPR).

5. The chairman of the pharmacist’ council of Nigeria (PCN)

6. The chairman of the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA).

7. A representative each of the Pharmaceutical Group and the Food and Beverages Group of the Manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria.

 Three people from the general public are members in the council.

There are nine (9) directorates in the agency which play specific roles in achieving NAFDAC’s mandate. The directorates are as follows:

1. Administration and Human Resources Directorate: This directorate handles staff recruitment/appointment, staff promotion, transfer and posting in the agency. It is also involved in the documentation of new staff, prepares staff nominal roll and issues identity cards.

2. Finance and Accounts Directorate: This directorate co-ordinates the general day to day financial functions of the agency disburse funds of the agency as approved by the management, pay all staff salaries as at when due, prepare budget estimate for the agency etc.

3. Directorate of Planning, Research and Statistics (PRS): This is a service directorate that is responsible for planning, researching and collection of statistical data as well as co-coordinating and documenting the activities of the other entire directorate for efficient achievement of the goals of the agency. They also co-ordinate pharmacy and medical internship and industrial attachment training program for the agency.

4. Laboratory Services Directorate: This directorate is task with the analysis and pronouncement of the quality and safety of food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, chemical, detergent, drinks, bottled and packaged water. It also serves as reference laboratory for the other government agencies.

5. Establishment Inspection Directorate (EID): This directorate is responsible for good manufacturing practices, inspection of local establishment engaged in the manufacturing, sale, storage, distribution and use of food drugs, medical devices etc. They also investigate consumer complaints and alert notices.

6. Ports Inspection Directorate (PID): This directorate is responsible for the regulatory activities concerning the movement of drugs, food, package water, cosmetics etc. at all ports of entry and border post, airports and islanders container terminals in the country.

7. Enforcement Directorate: This directorate handles all matters concerning enforcement in its entire ramification which involves the prosecution of manufactures and importer of fake product.

8. Registration and Regulation Directorate (R & R): This directorate undertakes the registration of drug, food and other regulated products locally manufactured, imported, sold and advertised in Nigeria. It also monitors national and international scientific development and initiatives that may affect public health and develops appropriate measure to address it.

9. Narcotics and Controlled Substances Directorate: This directorate controls the importation, manufacture and sales of narcotics and psychotropic substances with the main objective of ensuring that the drugs or other controlled substances like food items are available only for consumption purpose.