Saturday 30 September 2017

POST UTME ALERT

The Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun(FUPRE) hereby invites all candidates who scored 180 and above and applied for admission into the University as first choice in the 2017 Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examinations (UTME) to apply for the Post UTME Screening Exercise. Registration for Screening will commence on Wednesday, 30th August, 2017. Candidates are expected to pay the sum of N2,000.00 (Two Thousand Naira) only for this screening exercise. This is to notify all candidates that the Post UTME Screening Examination has been scheduled to hold as follows; Date: Wednesday, 4th October, 2017. Time: 7.00am for the following courses; Petroleum Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Electrical/Electronics Engineering. Time: 9.00am for the following courses; Marine Engineering, Geology, Environmental Management and Toxicology, Industrial Chemistry, Chemistry, Mathematics, Chemical Engineering, Computer Science, Geophysics, and Physics. Application closes by 12 midnight on Monday, 2nd October, 2017. * *Please endeavour to come with your Post UTME Registration Confirmation Printout and Payment Receipt. Note that GSM phones are not allowed during the Screening Exercise. Only non- programmable calculators are allowed to be used during the screening. Thanks.

POST UTME ALERT

APPLICATION FOR ONLINE PRE-ADMISSION SCREENING INTO UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES, 2017/2018 ACADEMIC SESSION This is to inform all candidates who have selected University of Abuja as their First Choice Institution in the 2017 JAMB UTME/DE to apply for the Pre-Admission Screening into undergraduate programmes of the University, for the 2017/2018 Academic Session. Candidates are advised to visit the University’s Portal (www.unibuja.com) and submit their O’Level results or/and relevant credentials for consideration for Direct Entry through the Portal from Wednesday 13th September, 2017. A. ELIGIBILITY i. Only UTME/DE candidates who selected University of Abuja are eligible for Pre-Admission Screening. ii. UTME candidates must have scored a minimum of 180 and made University of Abuja First Choice Institution to be eligible for Pre-Admission Screening. iii. Remedial Students who have completed the programme at the University of Abuja and who have selected the University of Abuja as First Choice Institution are eligible for admission provided they meet the ‘cut-off’ mark. (180) B. ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS i. All Candidates for undergraduate studies in the University of Abuja must have obtained at least five (5) credits including English Language and Mathematics in addition to three relevant subjects at not more than two sittings in WASC, NECO, NABTEB, GCE (Ordinary Level) or their equivalent. ii. UTME Candidates must have the required subject combination. iii. Candidates seeking Direct Entry admission into any of the undergraduate programmes must possess Advanced Level Results with passes in relevant subjects; ND or HND at Lower Credit or Upper Credit or above; N.C.E.; University Degree. C. GENERAL INFORMATION 1. UTME candidates who do not have UTME or O’Level subject combination may apply for a change of course to another course whose requirements they have met, subject to availability of vacancies. 2. Any error in the application by applicants would attract extra charges. 3. Multiple applications are not allowed; however, candidates who have applied for both UTME and DE, will be required to the respective application fees and the forms filled in separately. 4. Error in the completion and submission of forms during the process of application would lead to loss of application processing for the academic session. (e.g. selecting Economics instead of Accounting.) 5. Statements of Result of upward of four (4) years will not be accepted for admission screening (candidates should therefore obtain their certificates from the relevant examination bodies). 6. The Pre-Admission Screening will be based on Point Grading System by reducing the UTME Score to 70%, plus O’Level Subjects Results Aggregate of 30%, equal to100%. 7. Candidates are advised to re-visit the 2017 JAMB Brochure for guidance on the five best relevant subject combination for each of the courses. Pre-admission Screening Application fee (N2,000) is non-refundable. METHOD OF APPLICATION Application forms can be obtained online via www.unibuja.com, click Pre-Admission Screening, print procedure to access sales of forms, generate Remita Retrieval Reference (RRR), make payment online (Form fee N2,000). Fill the form online, save and submit FIVE BEST RELEVANT O’LEVEL SUBJECTS. Then print Online Pre-Admission Screening Acknowledgement Slip/Receipt from the Portal. Please note that the sale of the Online Pre-Admission Screening Application Form commences on Wednesday, 13th September, 2017. CLOSING DATE The Online Screening Application Form will close on Tuesday, 3rd October, 2017 (Three weeks) at 11:59 pm. Admitted candidates will be published on the University Web Portal ( www.uniabuja.edu.ng) at a later date. SIGNED Mrs. Rifkatu Hoshen Swanta Registrar

ALHIKMA UNIVERSITY (PRIVATE UNIVERSITY) METHOD OF APPLICATION FOR ADMISSIONS

METHODS OF APPLICATION FOR 2017/2018 ADMISSIONS (i) Applicants for Sub-degree Diploma and Undergraduate Programmes should complete the application form online at: www.alhikmah.edu.ng and pay a non-refundable fee of N10,000 online. Applicants for M.A. degree and PGDE programmes are to pay a non-refundable fee of N20,000 online after completing the form. (ii) Print the duly completed form, online Payment Receipt and Two copies of the Reference Form. (iii) Present the online Payment Receipt to the University Bursary Department and obtain the official receipt. (iv) Present the duly completed form with relevant credentials (Original & Photocopy) and official receipt at the Admissions Office for immediate screening. All Payments are made online, Al-Hikmah University does not accept cash payment or direct payment into the school Account 😀

POST UTME ALERT

SCHEDULE FOR SCREENING EXERCISE FOR UNDERGRADUATE ADMISSIONS FOR 2017/2018 POST- UTME The Federal University of Technology, Akure, FUTA hereby notifies all candidates of the Screening Schedule for the 2017/2018 admission exercise: SCREENING SCHEDULE (2017/2018 ADMISSIONS EXERCISE) DAY DATE SCHOOL(S) 1. Thursday, 5th October, 2017 School of Agriculture & Agricultural Technology (SAAT), School of Environmental Technology (SET), School of Earth and Mineral Sciences (SEMS), School of Health & Health Technology (SHHT) 2. Friday, 6th October, 2017 School of Sciences (SOS) 3. Saturday, 7th October, 2017 School of Engineering & Engineering Technology (SEET) - Batch 1 4. Monday, 9th October, 2017 School of Engineering & Engineering Technology (SEET) - Batch 2 5. Tuesday, 10th October, 2017 Mop-up/Direct Entry ELIGIBILITY Candidates who made the Federal University of Technology, Akure their First Choice Institution in the 2017/2018 UTME and scored 180 and have duly registered for the exercise are eligible for screening. In addition, candidates must possess five (5) credit passes including English Language and Mathematics at not more than two (2) sittings. Candidates who do not participate in the Post-UTME screening will not be considered for admission. FUTA will not consider candidates with “Awaiting Results”. IMPORTANT INFORMATION All duly registered candidates should visit the University website www.futa.edu.ng from Monday, 2nd October, 2017 to print the slip (it will contain the date, time and batch of screening for each candidate) that will admit them into the screening venue. Also note that: (i) All candidates should bring along the following items to the screening venue: (a) Depositor’s copy of Bank Teller indicating payments as appropriate; (b) JAMB UTME Notification of Results/Registration slips; (c) Printed copy of the completed FUTA Post-UTME Online Registration Form; (d) Print-out of e-Tranzact payment receipt (collected from the Bank) and (e) One passport photograph. (ii) The venue of the screening exercise is the FUTA Digital Resource Centre, “Obanla campus”, The Federal University of Technology, Akure. (iii) Candidates are NOT allowed to bring cell phones or any other electronic gadget into the examination hall. (iv) Candidates are requested, in their own interest, to have a feel (practice of the computer-based test by visiting Practice Test Page). (v) For more information or clarification or other issues, candidates can visit the University website www.futa.edu.ng NOTE: Any UTME candidate who fails to present himself/herself for the Computer-Based Screening Exercise will NOT be considered for admission in the University. SIGNED R. A. ARIFALO Registrar

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES ADVERT

THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, NIGERIA www.futa.edu.ng SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES ADVERTISEMENT FOR ADMISSION INTO POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMMES FOR 2017/2018 ACADEMIC SESSION Applications are hereby invited from suitably qualified candidates for admission into the Postgraduate Diploma, Masters and Ph. D. Programmes of the Federal University of Technology, Akure for the 2017/2018 Academic Session. For more information on • Available Programmes • Admission Requirements • Duration of Programmes • Method of Application • Opening and Closing Dates for Application Please visit the School of Postgraduate Studies portal (PG Portal) on the University’s website http://www.futa.edu.ng.for details: N. B. Mix-up in username and password by applicants would attract extra charges Error in completion and submission of forms during the process of application would lead to loss of application processing for the academic session (e.g. selecting M. Tech instead of PGD or Ph.D.) Candidates cannot transfer unsuccessful application from one programme to another Statement of result of four years and above cannot be used for admission (candidates should obtain certificate from relevant examination body) Applicants are no longer required to present O’level results for Postgraduate admissions All applicants are reminded that Application Form and Acceptance Fee are non-refundable. Opening and Closing Dates for Application: Application Forms will be available for completion for Six Weeks beginning from Tuesday, 26th September, 2017 and closes on Monday, 6th November, 2017. Signed Mr R. A. Arifalo Registrar

Post Utme Alert

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, KASHERE P.M.B 0182, GOMBE STATE Office of the Registrar NOTICE OF POST UTME/DE SCREENING FOR THE 2017/2018 ACADEMIC SESSION ADMISSIONS INTO FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, KASHERE, GOMBE STATE This is to inform all candidates who choose Federal University, Kashere as most preferred (1st choice) in the 2017 UTME and scored a minimum of 180 points and DE candidates with Credit/Merit pass in National Diploma, Recognized Diploma, NCE or IJMB in relevant areas from recognized tertiary institutions, that on-line registration for the screening of candidates for admission into various undergraduate programmes has been scheduled as follows: * Online Registration for the Post UTME/DE Screening - 18th to 25th Sept., 2017 * Physical screening at various Faculties of the University - 2nd to 6th Oct., 2017 Eligibility and Requirements: Candidates who possessed the above mentioned requirements are eligible to present themselves with the following documents at the venue of the screening: i. Original and photocopies of their credentials, ii. One passport size photograph, iii. Scratch card(s) for verification of 'O' Level results, iv Evidence of payment of Post UTME/DE non refundable screening fee v. Down loaded/printed online screening registration form. Procedure for Payment and Registration: i. Log on to www.fukashere.edu.ng and click on 2017/2018 Post UTME Screening Form; ii. Follow and fill the details as displayed; iii. Upload the filled form; iv. Pay the sum of N2,000:00 non refundable screening fee in favour of the University through the Remita by following the guidelines on the University website. Signed ALH. KABIRU GARBA AMINU Registrar

POST UTME ALERT

UNIJOS EXTENDS POST UTME SCREENING TO 5th OCTOBER, 2017!!! Post-utme 2017: UNIJOS Screening, Cut-off Mark And Registration: This is to inform all candidates who made the University of Jos their institution of first choice and scored 180 and above in the 2017 UTME that the University website will be opened from Monday, 11 September, 2017 to Friday, 29 September, 2017 for the UTME/DE online screening through https://mis.unijos.edu.ng The deadline for the online screening of bio-data / credentials may not be extended. Therefore, any candidate whose screening details are not submitted within the stipulated time will not be considered for admission. Eligibility All candidates who made the University of Jos their 1 choice and scored 180 marks and above in the 2017 UTME JAMB examination. General Instructions: (i) Any candidate who fails to complete the online screening will automatically forfeit the chance of being considered for admission. (ii) Withholding information or provision of wrong information will lead to instant disqualification. Offenders shall be handed over to the law enforcement agents for prosecution in addition to being disqualified. (iii) Candidates are required to upload their current passport photographs. Candidates’ results will be screened according to the entry requirements of the respective programmes that they have chosen. The results of Pre-Admission screening will be available on the University of Jos Portal: https://mis.unijos.edu.ng/ Specific Instructions: (i) Each candidate shall pay a non-refundable fee of Two Thousand Naira (N2,000.00) only (excluding Bank charges) for the screening. Payment shall be made through Remita collection platform at any Commercial Bank operating in Nigeria as follows: a) Bank Branch: Visit any Bank Branch operating in Nigeria Present your payment to the Teller (over-the-counter) and say you want to pay University of Jos Pre-Admission Screening Fee via the Remita platform. b) Remita Collection Platform: Access the collection platform via www.remita.net Click “Pay Federal Government Agency” Enter “UniJos Pre-Admission Screening” as payment details Enter the required details including your JAMB Number and Full Name Select any preferred electronic payment channels (ATM cards, internet Banking, mobile wallet, POS etc.) to complete your payment. The payer will be issued an electronic receipt following payment, which he/she will keep for further processing. Candidates are strongly advised against patronizing road side Business Centres for making payment. ALL PAYMENTS WILL BE VERIFIED BEFORE ADMISION PROCESSING. Visit University of Jos Portal https://mis.unijos.edu.ng/ for registration procedure as follows: Create an Account using your email address and phone number. A verification email is automatically sent to your email Log into your email and click on the confirmation link to enable you continue your registration Complete your registration by providing your Bio-data information, including O’ Level details, payment details (RRR and Date), upload your passport photograph and other information as required Click the ‘submit’ button to save your details on the University Portal Print Pre-Admission Screening slip and keep it for further processing. NOTE Misrepresentation/falsification of documents is a serious offence. Candidates are, therefore, advised to submit genuine documents only. Anyone found guilty of this offence will be disqualified automatically and in appropriate cases, be handed over to the Law Enforcement Agencies. Candidates are strongly advised to adhere strictly to the guidelines stipulated above and the published requirements for admission into the programme applied for. Signed: Mr. Monday M. Danjem Registrar, University of Jos.

Post Utme Alert

Kebbi State University of Science and Technology Aliero POST-UTME/DE SCREENING FOR ADMISSION 2017/2018 ACADEMIC SESSION This is to bring to the notice of all candidates who applied for admission into the Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero through UTME/DE and choose the University as their most preferred Institution (i.e. first choice) with a minimum score of 140, that the online screening exercise for admission into the University for 2017/2018 session will commence from Friday 29th September, 2017 to Tuesday 10th October, 2017, after which successful candidates are required to present their original credentials together with evidence of payment for the physical screening at the Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero commencing from Wednesday 11th October, 2017 to Thursday 12th October, 2017. Registration Procedure Please follow the registration procedure as outlined below: Visit the University Screening Portal at http://screning.ksusta.edu.ng Enter your UTME Registration Number as Username and Password to login. Click on “Generate Invoice”, then fill in the required information. Confirm and generate your screening fee payment invoice. Print your invoice containing your unique Remita Retrieval Reference (RRR) number, and proceed to any commercial bank branch within your location to make payment or click on “PAY NOW” button to use the instant online payment option. Applicants are required to pay the sum of Two Thousand Three hundred Naira (N2,300.00) Only (bank charges inclusive). After making payment, login and view your invoice to complete your registration. Upload a recent passport size photograph of either .jpg or .png format, update your biodata and previous academic records, then upload your signature. After registration, print your acknowledge slip and evidence of payment for record purposes.

Thursday 28 September 2017

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (CHM 104) TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

CHM 104 Tutorial Questions Course Title: Introduction to Organic Chemistry 1. _________ and _______ are examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons 2. Alkanes have a general formula of ________________ 3. Coaxial overlap of atomic orbitals produces ………. bonds (a). sigma (b). Psi bond (c). Pi (d). Sie bond 4. Why should carbon atom be the central atom which the chemistry of life and process evolve? This is due to ………. (a). abundance of C (b). structure of carbon atom (c). molecular weight of C atom (d). structure of earth crust 5. Which of these factors explains the key role of carbon in origin and evolution of life? (a). electronic configuration and ability to form covalent bonds (b). atomic weight and electronic factors (c). electronic combination and ionization potential (d). electronic configuration and ground state of carbon 6. Why do we have a wide variety of compounds containing carbon-carbon bonds? This is due to ………….. (a). ionic nature (b). convalent nature (c). valency power (d). cantenation power. 7. All these are importance of organic chemistry except ……….. (a). to understand life processes (b). formation of synthetic fibres (c). formulation of drugs, cosmetics and toiletries (d). construction 8. Give the structure of propanaldehyde ___________ 9. The shape of sp3 hybrid orbitals is ………… (a). octagonal (b). hexagonal (c). tetragonal (d). trigonal 10. Structural isomerism can be subdivided into _____, _____, ______ and ______ 11. Overlapping of sp3 hybrid orbitals give rise to the formation of ……… (a). alkanes (b). alcohols (c). esters (d). alkenes 12. The character of sp3 orbitals is (a).1/4 S-orbital and 3/4 P-orbitals (b). 1/2 S-orbitals and 1/2 P-orbitals (c). 3/4 S-orbitals and 1/4 P-orbitals (d). None of the above. 13. The phenomenon that involves the blending or mixing of two or more orbitals to form equal and identical orbitals is known as ………… (a). isomerization (b). polymerization (c). bonding (d). hybridization. 14.The new orbitals formed in (13) above are called (a). hybrid orbitals (b). isomerized orbitals (c). polymerized orbitals (d). None of the above. 15. ___________ and _________ are examples of alkane 16. Give the IUPAC names of of this compound; CH3 CHOHCH2 OH (a). 1,2,3-propane triol (b). 1,2-propan-1-ol (c). 1,2-propane diol (d). 1,2-propan-2-ol. 17. Aromatic compounds can be divided into ____________ (a). cyclic and acyclic compounds (b). benzene, phenol and toluene (c). benzenoid and non-benzenoid (d). tropolyne and azulene 18. Write the structure of 2,3-dichloropentene. 19. Draw the structure of 2-fluoro-2-methylpropane. 20.Alkanes are used primarily as __________ 21. Alkenes have a general formula of _____________ (a). CnHn (b). CnH2 (c). CnHn-2 (d). CnH2n-2 22.The alkyne group contains how many bond? (a). one (b). two (c). three (d). four 23. The following are uses of alkenes EXCEPT (a). ripening of fruits (b). purification of water (c). production of polymers (d). making of plastics 24. Aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds which contains _____________ (a). benzene ring (b). single bond (c). double bond (d). acyclic hydrocarbon 25. The phenomenon where a compound has the ability to exist with the same molecular formula but different structural formula is known as _____________ (a). aromatization (b). addition reaction (c). isomerism (d). conformation 26. Stereoisomers can be sub-divided into (a). chain and position stereoisomers (b). cis and trans isomers (c). position and functional stereoisomers (d). geometric and optical stereoisomers 27. A type of structural isomer in which the compound have the same molecular formula but different functional groups is called __________ (a). position isomer (b) functional isomers (d). geometric isomers (d). optical isomers 28. In geometric stereoisomerism, ‘‘trans’’ indicates the functional group on the __________ (a). adjacent side (b) same side (c). opposite side (d). left and right side 29. In geometric stereoisomerism, ‘‘cis’’ indicates the functional group on the __________ (a). adjacent side (b) same side (c). opposite side (d). left and right side 30. _______ and _______ are uses of alkenes 31. Eclipsed conformation is a type of conformation in which the atoms or groups attached to the carbon-carbon atom are/have ____ (a). far apart (b). very close to each other (c). a dihedral angle of 60o (d). low potential energy 32. What is the functional group of ketone _____________ 33. What is the functional group of ester _________________ 34. The group –ROR represents _______ (a). ether (b).ketone (c). aldehyde (d). ester 35. The group -RNH2 represents _____ (a). amide (b). amine (c). carboxlic acid (d).ketone 36. Which of these structure represents the compound called dimethyl ether (a) CH3OCH3 (b) CH3OOCH3 (c) –COOR (d) CHO 37. Alkane is also known _____ (a). unsaturated hydrocarbon (b). cyclic compounds (c) olefins (d). parrafins 38. Carbon centre to which four different groups are attached is called _____ (a). enantiomers (b). chiral centre (c). spatial atoms (d). dextrorotatory 39. Trans-1,2-dichloroethene can be represented as ______ (a). (b). (c). (d). 40. Which of the structure represent cis-but-2-ene? (a). (b). (c). (d). 41. CH3CH(CH3)CH2OH is a ________________ alcohol. 42. CH3 CH2CH2CH2NH2 is named as ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬________________ 43. The phenomenon of rotating a plane of polarized light is known as ___________ 44. Polarimeter is an instrument used to ____________ 45. Enantiomers are optical isomers that are ___________ 46. Give the structure of methyl ethanoate 47.which of these alkanes exist as liquid at room temperature? (a). propane (b). pentane (c). ethane (d). dodecane 48. __________ and _________ are examples of haloalkanes 49. The functional group of alcohol is __________ 50. Chain isomers is a type of structural isomerism that can be defined as ___________

Wednesday 27 September 2017

TRAFIGURA AND THE PROBO KOALA-ABIJAN, IVORY COAST

GLOBAL AND CHEMICAL ISSUES ASSIGNMENT (CHM 837) TRAFIGURA AND THE PROBO KOALA- Abidjan, Ivory Coast (2006) In 2006 Trafigura time chartered the Probo Koala, a tanker for transportation of oil products. Trafigura desired to strip the sulphurous products out of the Coker gasoline to produce naphtha, which could then be sold. Instead of paying a refinery to do this job, Trafigura used an obsolete process on board the ship called ‘caustic washing’, in which the Coker was treated with caustic soda. The process worked, and the resulting naphtha was resold for a reported profit of $19 million. The waste resulting from the caustic washing would typically include hazardous substances such as sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide and phenols. On 19 August 2006, after balking at 1000 pounds per cubic metre disposal charge in Amsterdam, and being turned away by several countries, the Probo Koala offloaded more than 500 tons of toxic waste at the port of Abidjan, Cote D’Ivoire. This material was then spread, allegedly by subcontractors, across the city and surrounding areas, dumped in waste grounds, public dumps, and along roads in populated areas. The substance gave off toxic gas and resulted in burns to lungs and skins, as well as severe headaches and vomiting. Seventeen people were confirmed to have died, and at least 30,000 were injured. The company has claimed that the waste was dirty water ‘slops’ used for cleaning the ship’s gasoline tanks, but a Dutch government report, as well as Ivorian investigation, dispute this, finding that it was toxic waste. During an ongoing civil lawsuit by over 30,000 Ivoirians citizens against Trafigura, a Dutch government report concluded that in fact the liquid dumped contained two ‘British tonnes’ of hydrogen sulphide. Trafigura, following an investigative report by the BBC’s News night program, announced on 16 May, 2009 that they will sue the BBC for libel. The scope of the dumping and the related illnesses were slow to emerge. While the first cargo was offloaded in August 2006, the dumping continued for almost three weeks before the population knew what was happening. But as early as 19 August, residents near the landfill at Akouedo were aware that trucks were dumping toxic liquid into the landfill and blocked the entrance of one of the trucks to dump, which had been freshly painted with the logo of a newly created company. Residents near several landfills in the suburbs of Abidjan began complaining publicly of foul smelling gas in the first week of September, and several people were reported to have died. Protests broke out in several areas against both the company dumping and the government. In the aftermath of the crisis, many top government figures resigned. This mass resignation has been called ‘unprecedented’ in Cote D’Ivoire’s history. In an effort to prevent the contamination of the food chain, large numbers of livestock (among them 450 pigs) affected by the dump were culled. Trafigura’s description of events On 19 August, the tanker ship Probo Koala, chartered by the company Trafigura and docked at the port of Abidjan, transferred a liquid into tankers owned by a firmed called ‘Compagnie Tommy.’ The company claims the ship had been chartered by Trafigura to transport oil to another West African port, and was returning to Europe, empty. The transfer at Abidjan, according to the company, was a routine maintenance stop, not a delivery of waste from Europe ports. Trafigura claims that this was done under agreement that it would be treated and disposed of legally, and that the substance was waste ‘slops’ from the routine washing of Probo Koala’s tanks. Again according to Trafigura, it became apparent that the untreated slops had been dumped illegally at municipal refuse dumps. They contend that the slops were an alkaline mix of water, gasoline, and caustic soda, along with a very small amount of foul-smelling and toxic hydrogen sulphide. Further, the company says that their test show that, while noxious, the slop from their ship could not have caused deaths, no matter how poorly it was handled by a third party. The company contends that the people of Abidjan, especially those living near dumps, suffered from a lifetime of exposure to toxic substances, not from their actions. Deaths and illnesses In the weeks following the incident the BBC reported that 17 people died, 23 were hospitalized, and a further 40, 000 sought medical treatment due to headaches, nosebleeds, and stomach pains. These numbers were revised upward over time, with the numbers reported by the Ivorian government in 2008 reaching 17 dead, dozens severely ill, 30, 000 receiving medical treatment for ailments connected to the chemical exposure, of almost 100, 000 seeking medical treatment at the time. While the company and Ivorian government continue to disagree on the exact make up of the chemicals, specialists from the United Nations, France, and the Dutch National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) were sent to Abidjan to investigate the situation. Fall of government Following revelations by local press and government on the extent of the illnesses involved, the nine month old transitional government of Prime Minister Charles Konan Banny resigned. The government vowed to provide treatment and pay all medical costs associated with the waste dump. Lawsuit by victims On 11 November 2006, 100 million pounds lawsuit was filed in the High Court in London by the UK firm Leigh Day alleging that Trafigura were negligent and that this, and the nuisance resulting from their actions, caused the injuries to the local citizens. Martin Day, of Leigh Day said, ‘This has been a disaster on a monumental scale. We hold Trafigura fully to account for all the dumping of their waste.’ In response, Trafigura announced on Monday 13 November 2006 that it had started libel proceedings against British lawyer Martin Day, of Leigh day. Shortly after it became apparent that the toxic slops from the Probo Koala had led to the outbreak of sickness, two Trafigura executives, Claude Dauphin and Jean-Pierre Valentini, travelled to Abidjan. They were arrested on 18 September, four days after their arrival, and were held in Abidjan’s Maca prison, charged with breaking Cote D’ Ivoire’s laws against poisoning. Seven Ivoirians were eventually brought to trial in Abidjan for their part in the dumping. The head of the Ivorian contractor who dumped more than 500 tonnes of toxic liquid was sentenced to 20 years in prison in November 2008. Company payment On 13 February 2007, Trafigura agreed to pay the Ivorian government 100 million pounds for the clean-up to the waste; however the group denied any liability for the dumping, and as a part of the deal the government would not pursue further action against the group. The Trafigura employees Claude Dauphin, Jean-Pierre Valentini and Nzi Kablan, held by the Cote D’ Ivoire authorities after the incident, were then released and charges were dropped against them. Further prosecutions against Ivorian citizens not employed by Trafigura continued. In January 2010, The Guardian reported that solicitors Leigh Day, working for the victims of toxic poisoning, had been ordered by a Cote D’ Ivoire court to transfer victim’s compensation to a ‘shadowy local organisation’, using the account of Claude Gouhourou, a community representative. Daniel Pearl Award On April 2010, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists presented the Daniel Pearl Award for Outstanding International Investigative Reporting to the team of journalists who had revealed the story of Trafigura and the Cote D’ Ivoire toxic waste dump. The award went to the British journalists Meiron Jones and Liz MacKean from BBC News night and David Leigh from The Guardian, Synnove Bakke and Kjersti Knudsson from Norwegian TV, and Jeroen Trommelen from the Dutch paper De Volksrant. The citation says the award was for reports ‘which exposed how a powerful offshore oil trader tried to cover up the poisoning of 30, 000 West Africans’. Trafigura is frequently asked: what has it done to ensure that an incident like this doesn’t happen again? While Trafigura strenuously maintain that it did nothing wrong and its staff acted in an appropriate manner throughout, using industry standard practices, the Probo Koala incident has undoubtedly been a catalyst for substantive and ongoing reviews of the company’s operations. At the present day Trafigura goes beyond what others typically conduct by way of due diligence on contractors and suppliers. The company has also developed standards that exceed the legal requirements for the design, operation and maintenance of vessels, terminals and facilities in the oil industry.

Tuesday 26 September 2017

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AS A CATALYST TO STRATEGIC NATIONAL SECURITY OBJECTIVES A plenary paper presented by Prof. AbdulRahman A. Audu of the Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Bayero University, Kano at the 40th Annual International Conference, Workshop and Exhibition of Chemical Society of Nigeria (KADACITY 2017), At the Abyssinia Banquet Hall, Hotel Seventeen (17), Tafawa Balewa Way, Kaduna, 18th – 22nd September, 2017. Your Excellency, the Executive Governor of Kaduna State – Mallam Nasir El-Rufai, The Royal Highness, the Emir of Zazzau, Alhaji Shehu Idris, Members of the Kaduna State Executive Council, Members of the Kaduna State Traditional Council, Members of the Kaduna State House of Assembly. The keynote Speaker Major General (Dr) Simon K. Oni (Rtd) and Other plenary speakers. The President CSN, Prof (Mrs) G. U Obuzor (FCSN). The Organizing Committee Chair Prof. S. O. Okeniyi FCSN The Chairman, LOC Alhaji Abdullahi M. Nuhu (FCSN). Distinguished Invited guests of CSN. Distinguished Participants. Ladies and Gentlemen. Preamble: I do sincerely wish to appreciate the efforts of the organizers of this conference for giving me the chance to expose my thoughts on issues relating to an aspect of the theme of the Conference – National Security. This aspect of the theme cannot be overemphasized because, if there is no Security no matter how Green the Chemistry is, it would not be practicable. Moreso, the whole world has become very insecure thus everyone has to become security conscious because safety and health always move together. Am delighted that in our midst are individuals who have held and are holding top positions in agencies and organizations that are charged with Security and that these would contribute to the discuss at this conference. When I was contacted by the organizers of the conference to present a paper with the overall theme of “Green Chemistry as a Catalyst for Economic Growth and National Security”, I thought that my focus would be on Green Chemistry. It was when the invitation letter came that I knew the assignment was on the aspect of National Security. It is therefore with great honor and humility that I accepted to present this paper titled: “Forensic Chemistry as a Catalyst to Strategic National Security Objectives”. While I was trying to source the materials for this presentation, the news came that the Executive Governor of Kaduna State, His Excellency Mallam Nasir El-Rufai was presenting to the Kaduna State House of Assembly a budget of more than Six Hundred Million Naira (N 600,000,000.00) for the establishment of a Forensic Laboratory in the state. This gave me a great relief, in that this very action of His Excellency has already covered all that I wanted to present. Also, all questions that would be asked at the end of my presentation would have been answered by the intentions of His Excellency, the Executive Governor of Kaduna State in the establishment of the first forensic laboratory in this part of the country; if not in Nigeria. This paper would basically try to provide an insight into what Forensic Chemistry is all about going through its historical overview to its current state. It would also try to briefly introduce participants to the various components of the forensic knowledge and the specific details of the area of forensic analysis and the various instrumental methods needed in the field. Eventually, the paper would highlight the uses of forensic data and how these can be keyed into the Strategic National Security Objectives. It will be concluded with the inclusion of some recommended actions to ensure that Nigerians are not denied the benefits derived from the use of Forensic Chemistry in the criminal justice system. Summary Forensic Chemistry services start by the recognition and recovery of evidences at the crime scene. It then proceeds by applying analytical tools in assessing the evidences and to present the findings to the justice system. Such findings would assist investigators of crimes like homicide, rapes, illicit drugs, accident – related incidents, unidentified bodies, missing persons, fraud and forgery cases. The current state has shown for instance that not only that drug trafficking has increased in the society, also the violence against humanity as a result of drug abuse is at a significant level. The forensic chemist has a significant role to play in the fight against drug trafficking like in other crimes since he can adequately evaluate the evidences of drugs found or left on victims, suspects, objects and in solutions. In case of disasters identification of victims can only be successfully achieved by the use of forensic analysis. This would involve the use of samples recovered from the disaster site such as hair, toothbrushes or other personal belonging of the victim. Through DNA profiling in comparison with probable relatives, the identity of such victims can be ascertained. The investigation of sexual assault can be successfully persecuted using the Y – chromosome which is a genetic marker since it is specific to the male evidences. Verification and authentication of printed documents just from the inks that have been used can be effected through forensic chemical analysis after separation. This approach has been very useful in authenticating documents of historical importance and suspicious documents by custom officials. Improving counter terrorism capacity remained high priority of most nations of the World. Forensic ballistics has great contributions to detect, deter, disrupt, investigate and prosecute terrorist incidences. This is because the forensic chemist has the ability to obtain the evidence from the bullet or residues found at the crime scene. INTRODUCTION What is Forensic Chemistry? Forensic Chemistry is part of the wilder field of knowledge called forensic science. Forensic Science applies the principles of natural science in matters of legal debate. It includes a broad, interdisciplinary group of applications of physical and biological sciences and various technologies applied in civil and criminal justice system. It covers areas ranging from psychology, pathology, toxicology, odontology up to the pure Forensic Chemistry. The truth is that a forensic scientist is often a chemist. This is because most of the analysis of the crime scene materials uses the techniques of chemistry; instruments develop for chemistry and the methods for solving the problems of chemistry (Huck and Sugel, 2006). Forensic Chemistry is defined as a discipline where the application of the nature of the sample and the use of the analytical chemical information plays important roles in crime scene analysis. This aspect of forensic science deals with the characterization and quantification of trace materials often obtained as evidence in the crime scene environment in solving a criminal case. Like all other chemistry disciplines, it examines the way the atoms and molecules in matter interact and bond with each other. All matter has a chemical signature, or set of characteristics that are unique to only that substance. Chemists use these characteristics to identify substances using scientific methods that can be replicated by other chemists. Such materials range from explosive compounds to gunshot residues, drugs and writing inks, dyes, poisons etc (Saferstein, 2004). Most forensic samples are complex mixtures for which analysis generally require separation prior to identification of the chemical species of interest. Thus, the principal tools of the forensic chemist are the instruments of analytical chemistry with emphasis mainly on chromatographic techniques such as Gas Chromatography (HO 1990). With the help of other analytical techniques such as Mass Spectrometry, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR), Raman Spectroscopy, Immunoassay, Atomic Absorption/Atomic Emission Plasma – AAS (ICP-AES), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), the field of forensic analysis has become very exciting. It is also important at this point to note that the field of forensic science is not the same as criminology which is a field in the social science which is involved with trying to find out why people commit crime. One of the primary functions of a forensic chemist, in addition to testing materials in the laboratory, is to present testimony in court. The forensic chemist is thus routinely required to serve as an expert witness during criminal proceedings for cases in which he has performed confirmatory tests. These testimonies will often include discussions of laboratory procedures, quality control, maintenance and calibration of the instruments used as well as the details of the analysis report. Forensic Chemist undertakes the tasks of prooving the commission of crime and how it was done. Historical Overview. The history of forensic chemistry started with the employment of poisons by the early Egyptians, the ancient Greeks and the Romans. Democritus was probably the first chemist to study poisons and his findings were communicated to and used by Hippocrates. Throughout history, a variety of poisons have been used to commit murder which include arsenic, hemlock, nightshade, strychnine and curare (NFSTC, 2016). For instance the philosopher Socrates was condemned to death and made to drink hemlock. Before the development of systematic, scientific criminal investigation, guilt was determined largely by circumstantial evidence and hearsay. Arsenic was a popular poison in the Roman Empire times and it was referred to during the early France as the inheritance powder. The Blandy trial of 1752 was the first instance of an actual chemical test results used in a criminal case. Until the early 19th century, there were no methods to accurately determine if any particular chemical was present and as such poisoners were rarely punished for their crimes (Pizzi, 2004). In 1836, one of the first major contributions to forensic chemistry was made by the British chemist, James Marsh. He developed the Marsh test for arsenic detection which was subsequently used successfully in a murder trial (Watson, 2008). The next advancement in the detection of poisons came in 1850 when a valid method for detecting vegetable alkaloids in human tissue was developed by Jean Stas (Wenning, 2009). The Stas’s method was adopted and used successfully to convict Hippolyte Visart de Bocarme of murdering his brother – in – law by nicotine poisoning. Star’s method has been modified to incorporate the tests for caffeine, quinine, morphine, strychnine, atropine and opium. The Crime Laboratory: The “Police Laboratory” as it was called, was then the origin of the modern day forensic laboratory. It was usually then a photographic development room in which “the police chemist” would work in the area of fingerprints and photography. It then expanded to include examination of firearms and the microscopic comparison of expended bullets. The influx of drugs into society during the late 60s and early 70s had its impact on the activities within the police laboratory. The need to increase the number of police chemists and chemical technicians became very apparent. In many crime laboratories, drug analysis often occupied 75 – 95% of the workload. As a result, many new crime laboratories were established in order to meet the increasing demand (Briner, 1982). Drugs or “controlled substances” as they are called are classified into five schedules. In order to place a substance into the correct schedule, the forensic chemist must be able to provide the specific structural information about the drug. This is because many “look alikes” were constantly introduced into the market. This situation led to major changes in the Police Laboratory as many new instrumental/analytical techniques have to be developed to meet the needs of the demands of the work load. Other new units were formed to meet specific demands of the criminal justice system resulting in the current state of the laboratory now called Forensic Laboratory. Major Activities in a Forensic Laboratory The workload in a forensic laboratory is subdivided into four main areas. These include: 1) Material Identification Here the forensic chemist uses the methods and techniques available to provide the correct identity of the crime scene material. This is the most important assignment and must be carried out with the highest available accuracy. This identification if incorrectly done would invalidate all the subsequent protocols needed. 2) Individualization of Materials This involves attempts to use biochemical means to separate genetic markers in human fluids so as to specifically identify the criminal. The result of this unit would show the relationship between the criminal and the crime scene sample(s). 3) Establishment of Common Origin This protocol provides the comparison of the analytical data of the crime scene material with a similar material found with the suspect or as found elsewhere where the suspect has made contacts with. The analytical data before use in the comparative assessment must have been statistically ascertained as accurate. In most instances “fingerprints” generated from the materials are used for matching. The matching process is carried out in such a way that accidental matching is avoided in all cases. 4) Reconstruction of Past Events Having correctly identified or matched the two samples, the forensic chemist would undertake the reconstruction of the probable events that must have taken place before the crime, during the commission of the crime and the movements of the criminal after the crime has been committed. The reconstruction exercise is carried out using both physical and chemical data obtained from the crime scene and the scene where the matching substance was obtained. The implication in each of the above tasks is the understanding that a forensic laboratory be able to provide the criminal justice system with the best possible analysis of evidence, so that the jury has the best possible information from which to make their decision. While trying to achieve this, the golden rule of the forensic chemist is followed, which is, “If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of Science, you have no victim to avenge, no guilty person to convict and no innocent person to save. You must bear testimony within the limits of Science”. The role of an expert witness (forensic chemist) and the evidence that can be provided in a court room is not only a methodological question, but also an ethical one. It is not for the forensic chemist to proffer an opinion as to the guilt or otherwise of the defendant, rather it is to present the findings as impartially and clearly as possible (Barneth, 2001). Methods Employed in the Forensic Laboratory Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments to identify unknown substances found at a crime scene (Geansslen, et al 1985). Different methods can be used to determine the identity of the same substance, but it is up to the Forensic Chemist to determine which method would provide the most accurate results. Factors that the forensic chemist would consider when performing an examination include length of time a specific instrument would take to examine the substance and the destructive nature or otherwise of that instrument. Forensic chemists prefer using nondestructive methods first, so as to preserve the evidence for further examination (Angelos, and Gary, 2011). Nondestructive techniques can also be used to narrow down the possibilities, making it more unlikely that the correct method would be used the first time when a destructive method is employed. The two main standalone spectroscopic techniques for forensic chemical analysis are Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FITR) and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses infrared radiation to identify a substance (FBI, 2006). The combination of non-destructiveness and zero sample preparation makes FTIR analysis a quick and easy first step in the analysis of unknown substances. In modern forensic laboratory, to facilitate the positive identification of the substance, FITR instruments are loaded with databases that can be searched for known spectra that can match the unknown’s spectra. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a destructive technique that is able to determine the elemental metal components in the sample. Because of the nature of the technique, the original identity of the sample is lost thus making it destructive. For this reason, AAS is generally used as a confirmatory technique after preliminary tests have shown the presence of the specific metal(s) in the given sample. AAS is useful in the case of suspected heavy metal poisoning such as with arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, explosive and ballistics samples. The concentration of the substance in the sample can indicate whether heavy metals were the cause of death or the nature of the explosive material (Baldwin, 1999). One of the most important advancements in forensic chemistry came in 1955 with the invention of gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC-MS) by Fred Mc-Lafferty and Roaldn Gohlke (Gohlke and McLafferty, 1993). The coupling of a gas chromatograph with a mass spectrometer allowed for the separation and identification of a wide range of substances. GC – MS analysis is widely considered today as the “gold standard” for forensic analysis due to its sensitivity and versatility along with the ability to quantify the amount of substance present in the crime scene material. The increase in the sensitivity of the instrumental techniques has advanced to the point that minute impurities within compounds can be detected thus allowing investigators to trace chemicals to a specific batch and lot from a manufacturer. GC – MS can be used to investigate arson, poisoning, explosions and to determine exactly what was used in their manufacture (Sergy, 2009). Quality Control and Assurance in the Forensic Laboratory To ensure the most accurate analysis of evidence, the management of forensic laboratories puts in place policies and procedures that govern facilities and equipments, methods and procedures and analyst qualifications and training. A crime laboratory is required to achieve accreditation to verify that it meets quality standards. There are internationally recognized accrediting bodies in the U.S. focused on forensic laboratories; such as the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board and ASQ National Accreditation Board. In addition to these, individual laboratories have specific policies and procedures that govern the way analysis is performed in the laboratory. The Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) publishes recommendations for the analysis and quality control of forensic laboratories performing analysis. This includes proper evidence handling and control, calibration of the instruments used, documentation methods, materials handling and storage, analytical verification procedures, report writing and case review. Perhaps an underlying tenet for Forensic Chemistry should be that physical evidence and its analysis cannot be wrong, it is only the interpretation that can introduce error. It would be appear that the most efficient methods of comparison still involve physical and chemical observation by scientist (Morgan and Bull, 2007). In summary, it is important that the forensic chemical analysis concern itself with the following tenets: • When undertaking comparison of samples, that exclusion should be sought before the match. • It is important to identify the nature of the analytical technique; that is whether it is descriptive, exclusionary or diagnostic. • It is necessary to employ a number of independent techniques. The Nature of Crimes The forensic chemist has classified crimes into two broad categories based on the outcome of criminal activities. These are: a) Crime against the individual. b) Crime against the properties of a person. The variety in criminal activities has resulted in the nature of instruments used in the forensic laboratories thus making forensic chemistry a highly technical, instrumental analytical field. The analysis of samples such as drugs, hair, paint, fibres, flammable materials, explosives and biological fluids can be handled with great accuracy thus extending the focus of forensic analysis. In trying to solve criminal issues, three main categories of analysis became very apparent. These are: - Trace evidence - Forensic serology - Forensic toxicology Trace Evidence (Transfer Evidence) The concept of transfer of evidence (Trace Evidence) is founded upon the central thesis evoked by Edmond Locard that “every contact leaves a trace”. Locard expounded upon this original premise by stating that “whenever two objects come into contact there is always transfer of material between them. The methods of detection may not be sensitive enough to demonstrate this, or the decay rate may be so rapid that all the evidence of transfer has vanished after a given time; nonetheless, the transfer has taken place” (Wiggins et al, 2002). These contacts may involve one-way or indeed, two way transfer: the later may occur where, for example, evidence from the perpetrator of the crime is deposited in a room and evidence from the room is deposited on the perpetrator. Furthermore, such contacts leading to the transfer of evidence may be both primary and secondary. Primary transfer occurs when, for example, the perpetrator directly makes contacts with a particular source of evidence. Secondary transfer may occur if the perpetrator, who has transferred evidence, makes a contact and transfers evidence collected from the primary source onto another object or person. In forensic context it is necessary that the transfer of evidence takes place from the forensic event site to either another location, or object associated with the perpetrator (Shoes/clothing, vehicles, etc). It is not only important for the evidence to persist upon in the personal items associated with the perpetrator, but also for the evidence to be recognized and collected. The recovery of the trace evidence can be a very difficult procedure. For instance in the trail of the explosive wreckage of Pan Am Flight 103, of 21st December, 1988 over Lockerbie in Scotland an area of 845 square miles was subsequently searched with instruction to search team commanders that “If it is not growing in the ground, recover it”. In that search some sectors had little habitations and few access roads, making searches very difficult. In some areas, tracks had to be cut through forests to facilitate the processes involved. During the search operations, 18,209 individual items of property were recovered which included 90% of the destroyed aircraft (Sergy, 2009). Out of the over eighteen thousand pieces of items only one was useful for the forensic investigation which was a printed circuit board piece of an MST 13 timer. Forensic Serology – This includes all examination of blood and body fluids (Saliva, urine, tears, etc). Attempts to individualize the sample are achieved by the use of electrophoresis methods. This method ultimately separates the enzymes from the samples which occur as genetic variations and are identified as individual genetic markers. Forensic Toxicology. The analysis of drugs and poisons in biological fluids falls into this class and it is also the prime responsibility of the forensic chemist. The ability to detect and identify foreign materials in a biological matrix with both qualitative and quantitative capability makes the area very challenging. Typical Forensic Investigative Areas. Forensic Chemistry and Illegal Drug Trafficking. Forensic Chemistry has largely been applied to the identification of illegal substances within the criminal justice system. Forensic chemists analyze such unknown materials including powders, liquids and stains to determine the chemical identity or characteristics of the compounds that make up the sample. Results from such analysis often served as the basis for criminal proceedings and help to determine sentencing for convicted offenders (Lyle, 2008). Samples submitted as evidence in a drug related case can contain one compound or a mixture of compounds. For example, cocaine powder is often caught mixed with other substances such as caffeine or lidocaine. The forensic chemist who receives the sample suspected to be cocaine will need to separate out all the individual compounds and test to see if one of those is cocaine. This is done by looking at the chemical characteristics of each compound and comparing those characteristics to reference materials analyzed using the same instrument. There are two main types of tests used to determine whether an illegal drug is present in a given substance. These tests include presumptive and confirmatory tests. Presumptive tests are less precise and indicate that illegal substance maybe present while confirmatory tests provide a positive identification of the substance in question. Presumptive testing maybe conducted in the field by law enforcement officers or in the laboratory once the seized items is received. These are usually colorimetric, meaning color change for absence or presence of the substance. Confirmatory tests involve a battery of instrumental methods using techniques such as gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (GC – MS) or infrared spectroscopy on the separated individual compounds. In all cases, the methods in these tests successfully provide the chemical signature of the illegal substance within the material. Explosive Compounds and Gunshot Residues In the last two decades, terrorism has emerged as an international disaster threat that has become widespread to many regions of the world. The bombings that occurred in Bali on the 12th October, 2002 have brought a great impact to the world where two bombs exploded almost simultaneously killing 202 people (Royds et al, 2005). Since then the growing threat, sophistication and rise in criminal activities involving the use of explosives have generated the need for fast and accurate investigation techniques for evaluating vital clues left behind at the crime scene. The post-blast analysis of trace amounts of explosives is particularly difficult because traces are usually trapped in or deposited on various debris materials. Explosives often present complex and difficult circumstances to investigate. Normally these incidents are committed at the convenience of the perpetrator who has thoroughly planned the criminal act and has left the crime scene long before any official investigation is launched (Remo et al, 2000). Visiting this type of crime scene, forensic expects must have fundamental concept of explosive, pattern of explosion, residue of explosion and pattern of damage (Moore, 2007). To fully characterize any explosive quantitatively an evaluation of its chemical, physical, mechanical, acoustic, thermal and electromagnetic properties must be performed. Successful characterization of explosive will help to improve their detection and facilitate any developments in their sensing techniques (Romalo, 2013). The method of sample recovery for trace detection and identification of explosive plays a critical role in their detection. Traces can be searched for, on large surfaces, in the hands of suspect or on the surface where the explosives were placed (e.g. places where an IED was assembled, vehicles used for transportation etc) (Toume, 2013). Advances in technology to improve the sensitivity, selectivity and reliability of analytical instrumentation for the detection of explosives have increased dramatically, particularly after the World Trade Center attack in New York City on September 11, 2001. Fortunately, these efforts have helped researchers expand the list of detectable, non – traditional explosive substances. A large number of standoff distance methods have been developed as a result of global terrorism acts such as the use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in both suicide and road side bombings. These developments in both existing and new analytical techniques have enabled faster, more sensitive and simpler determination to facilitate the detection of explosives. Yet, because these threats become more dynamic and complex through variety of explosive materials utilized, cleverness of packaging and variability of venue, there is still a huge challenge. Sensor technology has shown considerable promise in the field of explosives trace detection since they are generally highly sensitive, small in size, autonomous and inexpensive. Such sensors include: microelectromechanical for metal oxides (Brudzewski et al, 2013), Fluorescent (Costa and Prata 2001) and electrochemical (Yan, 2012) techniques. The successful analysis of explosive and post-blast residues can enable forensic chemists to identify the explosives used and help find the links to their likely origin and subsequently the perpetrators involved in the bombing campaigns (Ahmad, et al, 2011). Recommendation In order that Nigerians enjoy the benefits of the applications of Forensic Chemistry in all its facets the Federal Government should provide the enabling environment for forensic activities to florish. The possible contribution of Forensic Chemistry to the Criminal Justice System as crime fighting tool for domestic crime and violation of international humanitarian laws cannot be overemphasized these include:-  Legislation establishing the National Forensic Board should be made by the Government.  Establishment of more Forensic Chemistry Departments in the Nations Universities.  Establishment of a National Forensic Centre that would house the various branches of the forensic field.  Supporting individuals to set up forensic consulting laboratories.  Development of a National Forensic Data Bank that should be affiliated to the National Forensic Centre and with linkages to other international Forensic Data Banks. Concluding Remarks Crimes put the public at risk, not just from the substances such as drugs being distributed, but also from the subsequent crimes committed by users, traffickers and even the manufacturers which may include burglary, assault and fraud, homicide, abduction and human trafficking. Thus, forensic chemistry can be employed as a crime fighting tool and the results of forensic analysis may also protect the innocent people against false prosecution. The talk about national security requires the attainment of personal or individual security. That means, when every individual is secured, then the nation is secured. Thus, every effort should be made so that everyone has a very good sense of security and feel the same. The security of a state is like the product quality in manufacturing organization. A successful CEO of such organization takes maximum interest in the product quality for if that is assured the bottom line (profit margin) of the business is assured and the organization thrives. Similarly, for the every state executive to have a successful tenure security must be in his front burner always. If the security is assured then the state will be at peace and all the other activities of governance would be “a work over” for him. To achieve this status, there must be justice and this is what forensic chemistry strives to achieve. That is, strengthening of the criminal justice system with scientific facts that would enhance the attainment of peace in any given state. As it popularly said; where there is justice there is peace. The provision of Forensic Chemistry services might be the most significant crime fighting tool for the enforcement of law but it is also the most effective avenue to guarantee the security of individual and consequently that of the nation. The establishment of a national forensic laboratory will also reduce the expense of the government in terms of money to carry out such analysis abroad. As part of the comity of nations, Nigeria also needs to develop scientific capabilities in order to have home grown high quality scientific evidence which is admissible in the international judicial system. Thanks a lot for listening. References Ahmad, U.K., Rajendran, S., Lee, L.W. and Yew, C.H. (2011). Direct Immersion Solid Phase Microextraction for the Forensic Determination of Nitro Explosives in Post Blast Water Samples. Health Environ. J. 2(1): 27 – 37. Angelos, S. and Garry, M. (2011). Seized Drug Analysis Using FTIR and Mixture Searching for more Effective Identification” Forensic Magazine. Advantage Business Media. Barneth, PD, (2001). Ethics in Forensic Science: Professional Standards for practice of Criminalistics. London, CRC Press. Baldwin, D.R., Marshall, W.J. (1999). Heavy Metal Poisoning and Laboratory Investigation. 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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 The Quality of Nigerian Cola nut Cola. nitida(red cola nut) The cultivation of Cola nitidaalso known a...